hidup eksentrik

TRIK KENA TILANG]

2012-01-12T01:34:00.001-08:00

Polisi (P) : Selamat siang mas, bisa lihat Sim dan STNK?Sopir ( Sop ) : Baik Pak?P : Mas tau..kesalahannya apa?Sop : Gak pakP : Ini nomor polisinya gak seperti seharusnya (sambil nunjuk ke plat nomortaksi yg memang gak standar) sambil langsung mengeluarkan jurus sakti mengambilbuku tilang?lalu menulis dengan sigapSop : Pak jangan ditilang deh? wong plat aslinya udah gak tau ilang kemana?kalo ada pasti saya pasangP : Sudah?saya tilang saja?kamu tau gak banyak mobil curian sekarang? (dengannada keras !! )Sop : (Dengan nada keras juga ) Kok gitu! taksi saya kan Ada STNK nya pak , inikan bukan mobil curian!P : Kamu itu kalo di bilangin kok ngotot (dengan nada lebih tegas) kamu terimaaja surat tilangnya (sambil menyodorkan surat tilang warna MERAH)Sop : Maaf pak saya gak mau yang warna MERAH suratnya?Saya mau yg warna BIRUajaP : Hey! (dengan nada tinggi) kamu tahu gak sudah 10 Hari ini form biru itu gakberlaku!Sop : Sejak kapan pak form BIRU surat tilang gak berlaku?P : Inikan dalamrangka OPERASI, kamu itu gak boleh minta form BIRU? Dulu kamu bisa minta formBIRU? tapi sekarang ini kamu Gak bisa? Kalo kamu gak kamu ngomong sama komandansaya (dengan nada keras dan ngotot)Sop : Baik pak, kita ke komandan bapak aja sekalian (dengan nada nantangin tuhpolisi)Dalam hati saya ?berani betul sopir taksi ini ?P : (Dengan muka bingung) Kamu ini melawan petugas!?Sop : Siapa yg melawan!? Saya kan cuman minta form BIRU? Bapak kan yang gak maungasihP : Kamu jangan macam-macam yah? saya bisa kenakan pasal melawan petugas!Sop : Saya gak melawan!? Kenapa bapak bilang form BIRU udah gak berlaku? Giniaja pak saya foto bapak aja deh? kan bapak yg bilang form BIRU gak berlaku(sambil ngambil HP)Wah ? wah hebat betul nih sopir ?. berani, cerdas dan trendy ? (terbukti diamengeluarkan hpnya yang ada berkamera.P : Hey! Kamu bukan wartawankan! ? Kalo kamu foto saya, saya bisa kandangin(sambilberlalu)Kemudian si sopir taksi itupun mengejar itu polisi dan sudah siap melepaskan?shoot pertama? (tiba-tiba dihalau oleh seorang anggota polisi lagi )P 2 : Mas, anda gak bisa foto petugas sepeti ituSop : Si bapak itu yg bilang form BIRU gak bisa dikasih (sambil tunjuk polisiyg menilangnya)lalu si polisi ke 2 itu menghampiri polisi yang menilang tadi, ada pembicaraansingkat terjadi antara polisi yang menghalau si sopir dan polisi yang menilang.Akhirnya polisi yg menghalau tadi menghampiri si sopir taksiP 2 : Mas mana surat tilang yang merah nya? (sambil meminta)Sop: Gak sama saya pak?. Masih sama temen bapak tuh (polisi ke 2 memanggilpolisi yang menilang)P : Sini tak kasih surat yang biru (dengan nada kesal)Lalu polisi yang nilang tadi menulis nominal denda sebesar Rp..30.600 sambilberkata ?nih kamu bayar sekarang ke BRI ? lalu kamu ambil lagi SIM kamu disini,saya tunggu?..S : (Yes!!) Ok pak ..gitu dong kalo gini dari tadi kan enak?Kemudian si sopir taksi segera menjalnkan kembali taksinya sambil berkata padasaya, ?Pak .. maaf kita ke ATM sebentar ya ... mau transfer uang tilang . Sayaberkata ya silakan.Sopir taksipun langsung ke ATM sambil berkata, ? ?Hatiku senang banget pak,walaupun di tilang, bisa ngasih pelajaran berharga ke polisi itu.? ?Untung sayapaham macam2 surat tilang.?Tambahnya, ?Pak kalo ditilang kita berhak minta form Biru, gak perlu nunggu 2minggu untuk sidang Jangan pernah pikir mau ngasih DUIT DAMAI?. Mending bayarmahal ke negara sekalian daripada buat oknum!?Dari obrolan dengan sopir taksi tersebut dapat saya infokan ke Anda sebagaiberikut:SLIP MERAH, berarti kita menyangkal kalau melanggar aturan Dan mau membela dirisecara hukum (ikut sidang) di pengadilan setempat.Itupun di pengadilan nanti masih banyak calo, antrian panjang, Danoknum pengadilan yang melakukan pungutan liar berupa pembengkakan nilai tilaitilang... Kalau kita tidak mengikuti sidang, dokumen tilang dititipkan dikejaksaan setempat, disinipun banyak calo dan oknum kejaksaan yang melakukanpungutan liar berupa pembengkakan nilaitilang..SLIP BIRU, berarti kita mengakui kesalahan kita dan bersedia membayar denda.Kita tinggal transfer dana via ATM ke nomer rekening tertentu (kalo gak salahnorek Bank BUMN).Sesudah itu kita tinggal bawa bukti transfer untuk di tukar dengan SIM/STNKkita di kapolsek terdekat dimana kita ditilang.You know what!? Denda yang tercantum dalam KUHP Pengguna Jalan Raya tidakmelebihi 50ribu! dan dananya RESMI MASUK KE KAS NEGARA.

SURAT PERNYATAAN KOMITMEN

2012-01-12T00:58:00.001-08:00

Yang bertandatangan di bawah ini , Nama : Meita FaridaTempat dan tanggal lahir : Garut, 03 Mei 1990Agama : IslamAlamat : Kosan Wisma Ungu Bara III No.27 Dramaga, Bogordengan ini menyatakan: 1. Bersedia untuk berkomitmen dalam Organisasi Badan Eksekutif Mahasiswa Keluarga Mahasiswa Institut Pertanian Bogor (BEM KM IPB)2. Bersedia untuk tidak mengikuti kepanitiaan laindemikian surat pernyataan ini dibuat untuk dapat digunakan sebagaimana mestinya dan apabilasaya melanggar hal-hal di atas, saya bersedia untuk tidak diproses lebih lanjut sebagai bagian dari keluarga BEM KM IPB. Bogor , 14 November 2011Yang membuat pernyataan, ( Meita Farida )

Penyusunan Studi Kelayakan Program Kreativitas Mahasiswa (PKM-K) Aloe’Tea

2012-01-12T00:56:00.001-08:00

Penyusunan Studi Kelayakan Program Kreativitas Mahasiswa (PKM-K)Aloe’Tea1. Aspek Teknisa) LokasiUsaha Aloe’Tea ini belum memiliki lokasi tetap karena baru sekedar usulan suatu program kreativitas mahasiswa saja. Namun, jika terealisasikan usaha ini akan berlokasi disekitar kampus IPB Darmaga, tepatnya di daerah Babakan Raya dan sekitarnya serta wilayah dalam kampus sendiri dengan menggunakan stand penjualan.b) Bangunan dan LayoutUntuk daerah daerah Babakan Raya dan sekitarnya, usaha Aloe’Tea ini tidak diperdagangkan dalam bentuk suatu bangunan melainkan gerobak. Sedangkan stand penjualan menggunakan konsep stand pada umumnya dengan dihiasi ornamen-ornamen untuk menarik minat pengunjung stand. c) Bahan Baku dan Bahan PembantuBahan-bahan yang digunakan dalam proses produksi adalah kulit daun lidah buaya yang berwarna hijau, tablet effervescent, gula, dan air.d) Tenaga PenggerakTenaga penggerak terdiri dari :General Manager : Aditya NugrahaProduction Manager : Kurnia LestariMarketing Manager : Nailatul MusyoarofahFinance Manager : Nuzul Nur KhayatiR & D Manager : Tofan Argandhi P.e) Alat dan MesinAlat dan mesin yang digunakan dalam proses produksi antara lain pisau, talenan, oven, kompor, panci, gelas takar, alat pengemas (Heat sealer), saringan, sudip pengaduk, dan timbangan. f) TransportasiDalam hal ini transportasi digunakan dalam pembelian alat dan bahan baku serta kegiatan promosi seperti pembutan pamphalet dan poster ke toko percetakan.g) KomunikasiPenjualan Aloe’Tea ini menggunakan media cetak dan promosi secara tidak langsung. Media cetak seperti penyebaran pamflet/brosur. Sedangkan promosi secara tidak langsung yaitu dengan menginformasikan dari mulut ke mulut setiap pelanggan (word to word).h) Fasilitas UmumKeran usaha ini diperdagangakan di sekitar Babakn Raya dan di dalam kampus maka fasilitas umum sangat tersedia dan mudah dijangkau.i) LingkunganLingkungan juga berperan sangat penting. Karena usaha Aloe’tea ini diperdagangkan di sekitar kampus maka lingkungan masyarkat sekitar kampus menjadi sasaran penjualan. Usaha ini juga tergolong tidak merugikan masyarakat sekitar justru cenderung menguntungkan karena muncul variasi minuman yang menyehatkan dan menyegarkan.2. Aspek Pemasarana) Permintaan PasarPermintaan pasara akan minuman cukup besar seiring dengan banyak variasi makanan di kalangan mahasiswa dan masyarakat sekitar. Namun tidak semua minuman dapat menyehatkan dan menyegarkan sekaligus. Aloe’Tea dpat disebut sebagai solusi dari maslah tersebut dan menjadikan masyarakat beralih dari minuman biasa menjadi minuman kesehatan.b) Calon PembeliCalon pembeli kebanyakan mahasiswa IPB dan masyarakat sekitar daerah Babakan Raya dan sekitanya.c) PersainganAloe’tea ini baru ada pertama kali di lingkunngan kampus maka persaingan tidak terlalu ketat bahkan tidak ada sama sekali.d) Perkiraaan “market share”Market share Aloe’tea dilakukan dengan penyebaran pamflet pada awal pembukaan usaha dan publikasi d web, serta publikasi dari mulut ke mulut pelanggan.e) Rantai PemasaranPemasaran Aloe’Tea dilakukan secara langsung, dimana minuman ini diproduksi dan dipasarkan ke konsumen pda hari yang sama. Hal ini dikarenakan Aloe’Tea belum mempunyai cabang.f) Perkiraan PenjualanPenjualan minuman ini diperkirakan mencapai target pemasran yaitu rata-rata 50 cup tiap harinya meskipun tidak murnia 50 cup harinya karena tujuan utama minuman ini adalah mahasiswa sekitar IPB yang dimana pada akhir bulan mahasiswa mengalami masalah keuangan. Oleh karena itu, untuk tetapa mempertahankan jumlah pelanggan, Aloe’tea akan mengadakan promo tiap akhir bulan.3. Aspek HukumJika usaha ini terealisasi, maka sudah tentu akan memerlukan izin dari pihak-pihak yang berkepentingan. Seperti izin berjualan di sekitar babakan Raya dan di dalam kampus harus meminta izin pada pemegang lokasi. Yang dimaksud dengan pemegang lokasi ialah orang-orang yang berkuasa di lokasi tersebut. Misal, untuk di Babakan Raya dan sekitarnya meminta izin kepada kelurahan setempat. Lalu, untuk stand di kampus meminta izin pada pihak pengelola bazar.4. Aspek Sosial Ekonomia) Kondisi Sosial Ekonomi yang BerpengaruhAdanya usaha Aloe’tea ini akan berpengaruh terhadap kondisi sosial ekonomi. Dari sisi ekonomi akan menambah pendapatan si penjual, tenaga kerja negara, dan negara melalui pajak. Sedangkan dari sisi sosial akan memberi manfaat bagi masyarakat bahwa dengan meminum Aloe’Tea ini menyehatkan sehingga memberikan dampak sosial yang positif.b) Manfaat Terhadap PerekonomianAdanya Aloe’Tea masyarakat akan merasa tergugah untuk membeli variasi minuman baru yang unik ini. Selain itu karena nantinya usaha ini membutuhkan tenaga kerja dari masyarakat juga maka mereka akan menambah pendampatan tambahan.c) Manfaat Terhadap PerekonomianManfaat untuk perekonomian itu sendiri ialah meningkatkan belanja penduduk sehingga pendapat negara bertambah.d) Kesesuaian dengan norma sosialJenis usaha ini adalah usaha minuman yang berabahan dasar dari kulit lidah buaya yang tentunya halal dan menyehatkan. Selain itu, proses pembuatannya juga tidak menggangu aktivititas masyarkat karena tidak menggunakan alat-alat skala besar seperti di pabrik-pabrik sekitar.5. Aspek Manajemena) OrganisasiSebagai tahap awal pembuatan minuman kesehatan Aloe’Tea ini dilakukan oleh lima orang yang merupakan anggota kelompok.Struktur Organisasi Perusahaan b) Tenaga teknisKelima orang tersebut merupakn tenaga teknis yang mengerti sekaligus memahami bagaimana perkembangan usaha Aloe’Tea ini.c) Tenaga AdministrasiUntuk bagian administrasi diatur oleh Nuzul Nur Khayati yang bertugas bagian keuangan dan sebagianya.d) Tenaga ManajerialTenaga Manajerial dikendalikan oleh Aditya Nugraha. Aditya selaku General manger sekaligus yang dapat memberikan komando kepada anggota-anggotanya dalam pengembangan usaha ini.e) KemampuanKemampuan kelima orang tersebut dpat menjadikan usaha atau bisnis Aloe’Tea menjadi usaha yang layak dijalankan. Kerana masing-masing orang telah memiliki skill yang mampu mengembangkan usaha ini.f) Wewenang dan Tanggung jawabUntuk wewenang dang tanggung jawab semua anggota termasuk General Manager memegang wewenang dan tanggung jawabnya terhadap usaha ini. General Manager memiliki wewenang yang besar untuk mengatur anggotanya agar mampu bekerjasama secara maksimal. Tanggung jawab juga harus dijadika acuan nomor satu dalam menjalani tugasnya masing-masing.g) Pelatihan yang diperlukanDalam menjalankan setiap usaha atau bisnis apalgi pemula biasnya memerlukan pelatihan dasar tentang bagaiman suatu bisnis itu akan berhasil.6. Aspek Keuangana) Jumlah Biaya (investasi dan Operasional)• Biaya TetapKomponen Harga (Rp) Jumlah Satuan Total HargaPeralatan ProduksiKompor Gas 300.000 1 buah 300.000Regulator 90.000 1 buah 90.000Selang Gas 30.000 2 meter 60.000Tabung Gas 150.000 2 buah 300.000Panci 15 L 50.000 1 buah 50.000Heat Sealer manual 800.000 1 unit 800.000Meja 200.000 1 unit 200.000Spanduk 18.000 2 m² 36.000Saringan 10.000 1 buah 10.000Sudip 10.000 1 buah 10.000Gelas takar 10.000 1 buah 10.000Oven 95.000 1 unit 95.000Timbangan 50.000 1 unit 50.000Talenan 10.000 1 buah 10.000Total Peralatan 2.021.000Biaya Promosi AwalPamflet 2.000 50 lembar 100.000Sample Produk 2.500 20 Cup 50.000Program Launching Produk 150.000 3 hari 450.000Iklan Koran Kampus 55.000 2 edisi 110.000Banner 100.000 1 Unit 100.000Total Biaya promosi Awal 810.000Biaya LegalisasiPengurusan Dokumen Departemen Kesehatan 1.500.000Monitoring SNI 1.000.000Total Biaya Legalisasi 2.500.000 Total Investasi 5.331.000 • Biaya OperasionalJenis Pengeluaran Kebutuhan/bulan Harga/satuan (Rp) Harga total (Rp)Daun Lidah buaya Kering 3 Kg 30.000 90.000Gula 30 kg 10.000 300.000Air 17 Galon 3.000 51.000Cup 1100 cup 300 330.000Effervescent 1 Kg 40000 40.000Label 1100 label 300 330.000Listrik 12 KWh 1.020 12.240Transport 150.000Gas 16 tabung 15.000 240.000Pamflet 150 Lembar 150 22.500Sedotan 55 bungkus 150 82.500Sample Produk 10 cup 2.500 25.000Penyewaan Tempat 500.000Total Pengeluaran (per bulan) 2.173.240• Biaya PenyusutanPeralatan Nilai Residu* Umur (Tahun) Biaya Penyusutan (perbulan) Kompor Gas 30.000 3 7.500Regulator 9.000 1 6.750Selang Gas 3.000 1 2.250Tabung Gas 15.000 3 3.750Panci 15 L 5.000 1 3.750Heat Sealer manual 80.000 5 12.000Meja 20.000 5 3.000Spanduk 1.800 1 1.350Saringan 1.000 1 750Sudip 1.000 1 750Gelas takar 1.000 1 750Oven 9.500 5 1.425Timbangan 5.000 5 750Talenan 1.000 1 750Total Penyusutan (perbulan) 45.525*ASUMSI: Nilai Residu peralatan adalah 10% dari Harga Belinya. b) Waktu yang diperlukanWaktu yang diperlukan adalah lima bulan dengan rincian sebagai berikut :No Kegiatan Bulan I Bulan II Bulan III Bulan IV Bulan V 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 41 Pembelian alat 2 Pembelian bahan 3 Riset pasar 4 Penyablonan label produk 5 Uji Organoleptik 6 Produksi 7 Promosi 8 Pemasaran 9 Evaluasi 10 Konsultasi 11 Pembuatan Laporan 12 Penyerahan Laporan c) Perkiraan jumlah produksiProduksi dilakukan setiap harinya dengan kapasitas 50 cup tiap harinya. Artinya dalam satu bulan mengahasilkan ± 1000 cup.d) Waktu terjadinyaTerjadinya waktu penjualan usaha ini ialah jika usaha ini terealisasikan artinya PKM lolos ke tahap selanjutnya dan dana yang diperlukan telah cair.e) Perkiraan harga jualHarga produk Aloe’Tea ini dijula dengan harga Rp 3000,- per cupnya.f) Jumlah pendapatanJika dalam satu bulan menghasilkan produk ± 1000 cup da semua laku terjual maka keuntungan tiap bulannya Rp 1.531.123,5- berati usaha ini akan mengalami payback period pada bulan ke tujuh dengan nlai net present value selama setahun sebesar Rp 1.789.550,- dan memungkinkan untuk membuka cabang baru.7. Aspek LingkunganPada dasarnya, usaha ini tidak berdampak buruk bagi lingkungan. Sebaliknya, usaha ini justru memanfaatkan limbah kulit lidah buaya untuk diinovasikan sebagai usaha minuman yang menyehatkan dan menyegarkan.

Considering A Career In Natural Health?

2012-01-12T00:55:00.001-08:00

If you are exploring a career in natural health there are many choices and many directions. Often the most passionate students don't know where to start. School of Natural Medicine says - "Start with Self Healing - Start with the Highest Teachings - Start with Experience the profound height and depth of living Natural Medicine. With that as your foundation, studying information, theory and skills becomes a delight.We also advise you to take care in choosing a teacher, class, seminar or school and take the time to connect with the teacher personally before comiting to a course of study. Without the personal connection how do you know if you will connect with a real teacher, not just a good promoter or someone who teaches on a superficial level without experience. Do you wish to repeat your high school style learning or university academia experiences or do you want to discover true learning with a mentor who will know you personally and support and guide you to attain your highest potential as a human being, healer, educator and living example? If you ask the question your receive the answer!In the School of Natural Medicine in Boulder, Colorado, under the guidance of Naturopath & Director, Farida Sharan, students who discover our wonderful school are told that just as you seek a true teacher, a true teacher seeks a true student. If your dream is to become a healer or a professional naturopath, herbalist, iridologist, reflexologist, living food teacher, essential oils therapist, flower essence practitioner, a health counselor or educator, or just live in a healthy way with friends and family, the highest level of teachings is effort and challenge to live those teachings, to become a living example and authentic guide for others who seek truth.We are students of life and the very act of becoming a true student of a true teacher creates our most noble opportunity to live up to our highest potential. Consider the following and decide whether you are ready to be an ideal true student and work closely with a true teacher.Are you a true student? Are you ready to receive the highest teachings?A student, as well as teacher, I have often thought about what makes a good student. These qualities are what I look for when I am interviewing a potential student, as well as the qualities I encourage and support during each student's course of study.Instead of thinking only of information, success, money, and prestige when you consider making a living in the healing arts, consider the qualities you need to develop to help others.Wisdom, success, abundance and respect will come to you naturally if you deserve them.The flowering of virtues in consciousness allows the embodiment of wisdom through experience.VISION - See clearly that you are more than you are. Envision your greatest dream and then live your life to make your dream real.PASSION - Feel your dream so strongly that you know you can overcome any resistance, obstacles and challenges that stand in your way.TRUST - Know that step-by-step, little-by-little the causes you make every day will create the future you want for yourself. Know that you don't always know how things will unfold and trust in the mystery.COURAGE - Transform fear into creativity. Celebrate the risk by letting the vision, passion and trust move you into action that will create your dream. Have the courage to be yourself.COMMITMENT - When you say, YES, I will do this and commit yourself 100% to your course of study, the universe moves to support you. You transform the energies within and without you to creative your vision.PERSEVERENCE - Day by day, keep going, no matter what the ups and downs and changes. Make time. Ask for what you need. Don't give up, put off studies till some perfect time happens, or make excuses.COMMUNICATION - Share yourself with words and feelings, taking the time to build a relationship with teachers and your clients. Speak your truth, ask for what you need as well as offer gratitude and appreciation. Your voice carries the vibration of your being and sends it into the universe.COMPASSION - Understand that no one is perfect, not you, not your family and friends, not your teacher, your fellow students or your clients. From this understanding release the need to judge, blame, manipulate, compete, sympathize or resist. With appreciation, take what is offered from all relationships and transform everything into love.CONFIDENCE - Know you will succeed. Work with what you know, from your experience, your love, your knowledge, and your instinct. Know that you serve the world and life in all forms and that your work is to live love.HUMOR - Release the need for serious drama and open to the bigger picture, open to the cosmic humor of our true situation - of not knowing where we came from and where we are going. With this perspective we can open to making the best possible use of our life.HUMILITY - What is there to be proud of? Pride separates and measures. Let go and let the divine play a beautiful tune through your being.GRATITUDE - Be thankful for the gifts of each moment and the understanding to receive and respect what is being offered that serves your highest purpose, and the common sense to let go what is not.HONESTY - Be willing to tune in to your deepest truest feelings and live from that place, releasing the fear that believes you will not be loved for who you are.WILLINGNESS - Like a child who falls and then gets up again, let your willingness to evolve, grow, expand and become be like the sunrise of each new day.Think about these qualities. You may want to add others to the list. Some of the qualities mirror and augment each other. Consider the ones that are more natural to you and which ones are more difficult. Make a determination to develop the qualities you are lacking.School of Natural Medicine gives more than information. It supports and inspires you to be the very best you can be - in every dimension of being, so you can inspire others to join you in creating a garden of love on this planet earth.

New Inventions I Would Like To See

2012-01-12T00:52:00.001-08:00

Do you want to create money-making new inventions? Not me. I just like to dream them up. Here are some of the new ideas I would love to see created in reality. I hope a reader or two will do something with them.New Inventions For OutdoorsFree-standing tents without poles: The idea here is to have two inflatable sleeves that criss-cross over the top of a dome-style tent. Perhaps the rigidity would be insufficient for windy nights, but it's worth a try. Make them inflatable from inside, and you could quickly crawl inside and out of the rain to inflate it.Rail-runner bicycle attachment: This is a new invention I want to try, but one that will not be popular with the railroad companies. Wouldn't it be great to be able to bike along train tracks? They go many places that roads don't go. The idea here is a device that holds the bicycle wheels on the track as you pedal along. Easy removal would be necessary, of course, for the occasional passing of a train.Kites inflated with helium: If its been done, I haven't seen them yet. With some lift from the helium, these kites could be flown in any amount of wind. Designed right, they would still fly something like a kite, and with more maneuverability if designed like a stunt kite, with two strings. The first prototype might be a kite with a small helium balloon attached. If somebody makes this, I'll buy one.Other New InventionsDisposable t-shirts: Dollar stores have t-shirts on the shelves, so we know they're getting cheap. Why not invented a line of shirts that are low-quality, but good enough, and cost very little to manufacture? Sell them in boxes of 12, as "disposable clothing." Where's the market? Those who want less laundry to do on long trips, or those who want to have some cheap things to wear while doing dirty jobs.

Syaratdanketentuan MUBES LK IPB 28&29 Desember 2011

2011-12-23T03:58:00.001-08:00

Ketua LK telahmelakukan:1. Kumpul LK per Fakultasdan per KM ( di inisiasioleh @ Ketua DPM)Kelompokiniakanbanyakmembahas mengenaipermasalahan yang terjadi di tingkat LK Fakultasdan KM yang akandiinisiasiolehtiap-tiap DPM Fakultasdan DPM KM,serta UKM yang akandiinisiasioleh MPM KM. Diskusikelompoktersebutdilaksanakandalamrentangwaktu 23 – 26 Desember 20112. Kumpul LK per ranahkerja (DPM-BEM-Himpro-UKM)Kelompokiniakanmembahasmasalah yang didapatkandaribahasankumpul LK per Fakultasdan per KM serta per UKM. Dalamtingkatiniakandikelompokkanlebihluaslagisesuaidenganranahkerjanya yang samaataulebihdekat. Kelompok DPM terdiridari DPM Fakultasdan DPM KM dengandiinisiasioleh DPM KM.Kelompok BEM terdiridari BEM Fakultasdan BEM KM dengandiinisiasioleh BEM KM.KelompokHimproterdiridariHimproFakultasdengandiinisiasiolehKetua Forum Himpro.Kelompok UKM terbagimenjadiduabagian, yaitukelompokolahragadanseni (OrSen) yang akandiinisiasiolehMenteriBudaya, OlahragadanSeni BEM KM IPB 2012 dan Non- OrSen yang diinisiasiolehSekJenMPM KM.Diskusiiniakandilaksanakanpadatgl 27 Desember2011pukul 16.00 @ Student Center . PJ tanggal 27 Desember 2011:PJ DPM Baehaki (Ketua DPM KM) 085624035789PJ BEM Udin (PresidenMahasiswa IPB) 085216037211PJHimproAuzan (Ketua Forum Himpro) 085695362892PJ UKM OrSenPrama (Menteri BOS BEM KM) 085624957538PJ UKM non-OrSen PJ Tegar (SekJen MPM) 085722112747 3. Kumpul LK denganmasing-masingpihakkemahasiswaanSetiap LK di haruskanuntukmendiskusikanrencana program besarnyamasing-masingdenganpihakkemahasiswaanmasing-masing (FakultasdenganpihakkemahasiswaanFakultasmasing-masing, KM dengan Dir. Kemahasiswaan IPB, HimprodenganpihakkemahasiswaanDepartemenmasing-masing, UKM dengan Pembina masing-masing).4. Telahadakeputusanprokerbesarselamasetahunkedepan 20125. Memahami UUD KM IPB, dapatdiperoleh di Situs DPM KM6. Pesertadiharuskanuntukmempunyairencana program kerjaunggulandisetiapLKnyadenganperkiraanwaktu yang sudahjelashari, tanggal, danbulannya.

“Konsep Pangan dan Agribisnis”

2011-12-23T00:49:00.001-08:00

PRAKTIKUM MK. AGRIBISNIS PANGAN“Konsep Pangan dan Agribisnis”Oleh :Aprinia Solikhatun Nisa (H34100079), M. Fadholi (H34100125), Naritha Ayudya R (H34100163), Made Rai Lintang K (H34100119), Septiany Fazrin (H34100160)Departemen Agribisnis,Fakultas Ekonomi dan Manajemen, Institut Pertanian Bogor2011NilaiDosen Praktikum : Amzul ArifinHari / Tanggal :Rabu, 7 agustus 2011 Praktikum :ke-2 (Konsep Pangan dan Agribisnis)Ruang :RK.X.032 PENDAHULUANLatar BelakangMasyarakat mandiri dan berdaulat, merupakan cita-cita bangsa Indonesia sejak jaman dahulu kala. Mulai dari kebutuhan pangan pokok seperti beras hingga pangan komoditas lauk pauk, selalu diusahakan oleh pemerintah agar dapat berdaulat. Tidak hanya itu. Menjadi negara pengekspor komoditi bahan pangan pokok terbesar pun telah menjadi cita-cita kita sejak jaman dahulu kala. Tak semudah itu cita-cita bangsa kita tercapai. Negara kita masih memiliki masalah utama yang belum bisa dipecahkan, yaitu pertambahan kebutuhan pangan masih belum sebanding dengan pertumbuhan penyedianya. Hal ini dikarenakan Indonesia memiliki jumlah penduduk yang sangat besar. Namun, sedikit diantaranya yang mengusahakan pertanian. Hal inilah yang membuat sebuah kebijakan pemerintah sangat besar peranannya dalam mempertahankan ketahanan pangan bangsa.Tujuan PenulisanMakalah ini ditulis dengan harapan dapat menambah pengetahuan serta kepedulian mahasiswa, mahasiswi, serta masyarakat umum yang telah membacanya terhadap ketahanan pangan Indonesia. Serta dengan sadar dapat turut serta dalam menjaga ketahanan pangan dan mendukung serta mengkaji kebijakan pemerintah tentang ketahanan pangan nasional.Manfaat PenulisanMenambah wawasan pembaca tentang kebijakan pemerintah di sektor ketahanan pangan nasional serta bagaimana menyikapi terhadap kebijakan pemerintah tersebut.PEMBAHASANPertanian di Indonesia sedang berada di persimpangan jalan. Sebagai penunjang kehidupan berjuta-juta kehidupan masyarakat Indonesia, sektor pertanian memerlukan pertumbuhan ekonomi yang kukuh dan pesat. Sektor pertanian juga di butuhkan dalam memajukan perekonomian Indonesia serta digunakan sebagai program utama pemerintah dalam rangka pengentasan kemiskinan. Selama kehidupan terus berlangsung maka kebutuhan akan pangan juga terus berlangsung. Untuk itu, diperlukan kebijakan ketahan pangan agar kebutuhan pangan dapat diolah dan diperoleh dengan baik. Menurut Peraturan Pemerintah RI nomor 28 tahun 2004, pangan adalah segala sesuatu yang berasal dari sumber hayati dan air, baik yang diolah maupun yang tidak diolah, yang diperuntukkan sebagai makanan atau minuman bagi konsumsi manusia, termasuk bahan tambahan pangan, bahan baku pangan dan bahan lain yang digunakan dalam proses penyiapan, pengolahan, dan atau pembuatan makanan atau minuman.Penduduk Indonesia memiliki bahan pangan pokok, dimana sebagian besar dari penduduk Indonesia mengonsumsi beras sebagai makanan pokoknya. Pendapat “Di Indonesia Pangan Identik dengan Beras” benar adanya, meski tak sepenuhnya benar karena di sebagian daerah di timur Indonesia masih ada masyarakat yang mengkonsumsi pangan selain beras. Pangan yang dimaksud seperti papeda (sagu) dan jagung. Tetapi selain daerah itu, di Indonesia hampir seluruh masyarakatnya mengkonsumsi beras sebagai pangan pokok. Penyebab besarnya konsumsi beras oleh penduduk Indonesia, diakibatkan pada jaman pemerintahan presiden Soeharto terjadi swasembada pangan sehingga persediaan pangan terutama beras melimpah sehingga saat itu juga presiden memutuskan agar rakyat Indonesia mengonsumsi nasi. Akibat dari kebijakan tersebut produksi padi semakin naik dari tahun ke tahun. Namun hal tersebut masih kalah jika dibanding laju pertumbuhan penduduk yang selalu naik dengan cepat. Semakin lama hal itu tidak dapat dijangkau dengan baik oleh pemerintah karena ditambah dengan adanya pembangunan yang mengurangi lahan untuk becocok tanam, hingga tidak adanya lagi penerus yang mau terjun ke pertanian. Pelaksanaan swasembada beras memang berhasil tetapi hanya dalam selang 2 tahun Indonesia harus melakukan impor beras kembali karena hal tersebut.Harus diakui bahwa pembangunan yang bersifat hegemoni pada masa yang lampau telah meninggalkan banyak dampak negatif. Salah satu kebijakan yang telah menciptakan dampak kompleks adalah hegemoni dalam bidang pangan, yaitu menyeragamkan jenis makanan pokok rakyat dengan komoditi beras. Misi itu diimplementasikan saat produksi padi Indonesia mengalami pertumbuhan yang cukup baik. Selain itu ada keyakinan yang besar bahwa usahatani padi masih mempunyai potensi untuk terus dikembangkan. Berbagai teknologi mulai dari benih, pupuk, pestisida hingga alsintan diteliti dan diintroduksikan ke pedesaan dengan tujuan agar petani bisa menangani proses produksi secara intensif. Pembangunan yang mempunyai ideologi identik dengan revolusi hijau diorientasikan pada tingkat pertumbuhan dengan landasan efisiensi. Asupan makanan yang diserap tubuh akan berdampak penting bagi Individu, keluarga, dan bangsa. Dampak tersebut berupa mencerdaskan penerus bangsa dengan kandungan yang ada dalam pangan yang dibutuhkan tubuh. Selain itu pangan sangat penting karena hal yang sangat dibutuhkan tubuh untuk beraktivitas maupun melakukan apapun.Tak heran jika kebutuhan pangan merupakan masalah utama yang dihadapi bangsa Indonesia. Meskipun sebagai negara agraris, Indonesia masih mengimpor beras. Hal yang sama juga terjadi pada komoditas pertanian lainnya seperti gula, dan daging sapi. Seperti yang diungkapkan di sebuah situs mengenai Indonesia akan hadapi masalah pangan, Siswono mengungkapkan, "Walau menurut hitungan tahun 2004 kita telah mampu swasembada beras, hingga sekarang Indonesia masih berstatus sebagai pengimpor beras.” Siswono juga mengatakan bahwa, ketergantungan impor pangan bangsa Indonesia terhadap negara lain sangat tinggi. Berbagai isu tentang masalah pangan di Indonesia semakin berkembang. Sedangkan upaya yang dilakukan oleh stakeholders masih belum dapat menyelesaikan isu tersebut. Berikut adalah tabel tentang masalah pangan yang ada di Indonesia serta upaya yang telah dilakukan oleh stakeholders.Masalah Pangan Upaya StakeholdersKetersediaan pangan• Konversi lahan pertanian kepada kegiatan nonpertanian• Semakin langkanya ketersediaan sumberdaya air untuk pertanian• Iklim yang semakin tidak menentu  Melakukan perluasan tanam seperti di kotabaru, Kalimantan 26.600 hektar pada 2010 menjadi 27.000 hektar pada 2011. Meningkatkan produktivitas lahan dari kurang 2,5 ton per hektar untuk padi gogo menjadi diatas 2,5 ton per ha. Distribusi dan harga• Belum memadainya prasarana dan sarana distribusi yang berakibat memicu kenaikan harga dan dapat menurunkan kualitas konsumsi pangan• Belum mampu menciptakan iklim pemasaran yang dapat memfasilitasi kestabilan harga dan efisiensi biaya• Banyak peraturan daerah yang menghambat arus distribusi pangan karena pelaksanaan otonomi daerah  Memfasilitasi masyarakat dengan sarana pengembangan agribisnis yang diperlukan seperti informasi pasar, peningkatan akses terhadap pasar sarana produksi, pemodalan, serta kerja sama kemitraan dengan lembaga usaha lain Konsumsi pangan• Beban penyediaan beras yang semakin bertambah akibat swasembada beras• Lambatnya pengembangan usaha penyediaan bahan pangan sumber protein• Teknologi pengolahan pangan lokal di masyarakat kurang berkembang dibanding teknologi produksi dan kurang dapat bersaing barang olahan impor.• Banyak masyarakat di daerah tertentu mengalami kerawanan pangan secara berulang pada musim paceklik  Peningkatan produksi dalam negeri. Kebijakan ini bisa diimplementasikan dalam bentuk intensifikasi, ekstensifikasi, dan intensitas tanam. Mengurangi konsumsi beras nasional, Besarnya ketergantunagan masyarakat terhadap beras dalam mencukupi kebutuhan karbohidrat dan besarnya rata-rata konsumsi beras perkapita/tahun, memberi peluang besar untuk memberlakukan kebijakan ini.Oleh karenanya, Agribisnis memiliki peran besar dalam mengatasi dan mengimplementasi kebijakan ketahanan pangan melalui strategi yang dimiliki konsep agribisnis. Dimana agribisnis merupakan sektor utama yang mampu menggerakan dan memenuhi pangan domestik dan nasional. Suatu strategi pembangunan ekonomi yang mengintegrasikan pembangunan pertanian (termasuk perkebunan, peternakan, perikanan, dan kehutanan) dengan pembangunan industri hulu dan hilir pertanian serta sektor-sektor jasa yang terkait di dalamnya. Strategi pembangunan sistem agribisnis yang bercirikan yakni berbasis pada pemberdayagunaan keragaman sumberdaya yang ada di setiap daerah (domestic resources based), akomodatif terhadap keragaman kualitas sumberdaya manusia yang kita miliki, tidak mengandalkan impor dan pinjaman luar negeri yang besar, berorientasi ekspor (selain memanfaatkan pasar domestik), diperkirakan mampu memecahkan sebagian besar permasalahan perekonomian yang ada. Selain itu, strategi pembangunan sistem agribisnis yang secara bertahap akan bergerak dari pembangunan yang mengandalkan sumberdaya alam dan SDM belum terampil (factor driven), kemudian beralih kepada pembangunan agribisnis yang digerakkan oleh barang-barang modal dan SDM lebih terampil (capital driven) dan kemudian beralih kepada pembangunan agribisnis yang digerakkan ilmu pengetahuan, teknologi dan SDM terampil (innovation-driven), diyakini mampu mengantarkan perekonomian Indonesia memiliki daya saing dan bersinergis dalam perekonomian dunia. PENUTUPKesimpulanKebutuhan pangan akan bertambah seiring bertambahnya penduduk. Untuk itu diperlukan kebijakan ketahanan pangan agar kebutuhan pangan dapat diolah dan diperoleh dengan baik. Kebijakan yang sesuai dengan ketahanan pangan Indonesia adalah kebijakan dan strategi agribisnis, dimana agribisnis merupakan sektor utama yang mampu menggerakkan dan memenuhi pangan domestik dan nasional. Kebijakan agrisbisnis memerhatikan seluruh sektor mulai dari hulu, on-farm, hilir, hingga sarana dan prasarana penunjang. Kebijakan yang tak sesuai menyebabkan dampak yang merugikan di masa mendatang, oleh karenanya diperlukan pengkajian dan partisipasi terhadap kebijakan pemerintah.SaranAgar kebijakan katahanan pangan menguntungkan bagi semua pihak diperlukan penyesuaian terhadap kondisi pangan di Indonesia. Peran stakeholders juga diperlukan dalam upaya penanganan masalah ketahanan pangan.DAFTAR PUSTAKAAnonim. 2008. Potensi Agribisnis Indonesia.http://indoagribisnis.wordpress.com/2008/09/21/potensi-agribisnis-indonesia/ [2 September 2011]

Safe Driving on Ski Trips -- Part 2 -- If You Get in Trouble

2011-12-23T00:46:00.001-08:00

Whether you're leaving the city heading to the Mammoth Mountain/Lake Tahoe High Sierra country for its beauty and relaxation, or planning that ski trip from Scottsdale to Snowbowl, here are some tips for a safe and pleasant journey, and how to deal with trouble, should it arise.Slow down. A highway speed of 65 miles per hour may be safe in dry weather, but an invitation for trouble on snow and ice. Snow and ice make stopping distances much longer, so keep your seat belt buckled and leave more distance between your vehicle and the vehicle ahead. Look farther ahead in traffic. Actions by other drivers will alert you to problems and give you extra seconds to react. Remember to avoid sudden stops and quick direction changes. Do everything slowly and gently. Anticipate turns and stops. Leave plenty of distance between you and other cars. Drive as if there were eggs on the bottom of your feet; step on the gas and the brake pedals so gently that you don't break the eggshell. Trucks take longer to stop, so don't cut in front of them.Watch out for fog; it drifts rapidly and often is patchy. In foggy conditions, drive very slowly using lowered headlights. Don't hang on to the taillights of the vehicle in front. This gives you a false sense of security and means you may be driving too close. Don't speed up suddenly, even if it seems to be clearing. You can find yourself suddenly back in thick fog.If you should find yourself stuck, turn your wheels from side to side a few times to push snow out of the way. Keep a light touch on the gas, and ease forward. Don't spin your wheels; you'll just dig in deeper. Rocking the vehicle is another way to get unstuck. (Check your owner's manual first, as it can damage the transmission on some vehicles.) Shift gently from forward to reverse, and back again.The best approach to recovering from a skid is the same for both front and rear-wheel drive vehicles. If your rear wheels start to skid, turn the steering wheel in the direction you want the front wheels to go. If your rear wheels are sliding left, steer left. If they're sliding right, steer right. As you continue to correct, you may have to steer left and right a few times to get your vehicle completely under control.If your front wheels skid, take your foot off the gas and shift to neutral, but don't try to steer immediately. As the wheels skid sideways, they will slow the vehicle and traction will return. As it does, steer in the direction you want to go and accelerate gently.If your car has an anti-lock braking system (ABS), keep your foot on the pedal. If not, pump the pedal gently, pumping more rapidly as your car slows down. Braking hard with non-anti-lock brakes will lock the wheels and make the skid worse.Do not use a mobile phone while driving. Stop somewhere safe or ask a passenger to make the call. On a freeway, it is better to use a roadside emergency telephone, because the emergency services will be able to locate you easily. If you have to use a mobile phone, make sure you know your location from the numbers on the marker posts on the side of the road.If your car gets stuck out on the road run the heater every 10 minutes but never fall asleep with the car running. In blizzard conditions, especially overnight, make sure one person stays awake, because help could take some time to arrive. Maintain circulation by moving your feet, hands, and arms. Avoid alcohol. It lowers body temperature and will cause you to become drowsy. Stay in the vehicle. Don't wander and get lost or frostbitten. Leave one window cracked open. Freezing winds and wet, driving snow can quickly seal a vehicle. Clean any snow from around the end of the tail pipe to prevent carbon monoxide buildup. Clear outside heater vents -- that's the grill under the windshield.Signal to other motorists that you're stranded by using flares or flashlights, or by tying a piece of brightly colored cloth to the radio antenna and using your "Help" sign.So, whether you're to stay at Aspen, Scottsdale or Vail, there's much more involved than just finding discounted hotel accommodations; be sure to plan a safe and pleasant trip!

Search For The Right Coffee Machine

2011-12-23T00:42:00.001-08:00

"Joe was on the department store one day in search for a coffee machine he will use at his kitchen. He scanned and looked around for several brands just to make sure he ended up with the perfect one. Few minutes later, he was on his way home. When he arrived, he set up his brand new coffee machine on the kitchen. In the first few days, the machine worked perfectly. But after some time, he discovered that it was not the right one for him. He wanted more and can't have it with his present coffee machine."Most people experience this. They buy what they think are the mort attractive coffee machine on display but ending up disappointed because it seems that their choice is wrong. But it does not automatically exclude that fact that there are those who have somehow landed on the perfect coffee machine. It is just there are more and more people craving to have the perfect coffee machine without knowing what they really want. So in order to put everything in place, this article may help you or ever improve your chances in bringing home the right coffee machine by determining different kinds of coffee machine available.There are as many types of coffee machine makers as the types of coffee around the world and choosing the right one has to be perfect so as not to end up buying another set few days later.The most popular coffee machine must be the percolator. It might not be your expected electric coffee machines but this type makes great tasting coffee by boiling water with coffee beans several times. This is perfect if you are going to use mild coffees.For more flexible coffee mixture, the drip coffee machine might be right for you. There are two types of drip coffee machines: automatic and manual. Both use filters of nylon, paper, or gold. Temporary filters are also essential that is usually paper filters. The method of automatic drip is to pour cold water to the reservoir and place coffee on the filter. When the coffee machine reaches the right water temperature, it will pour to the coffee in the filter.

Coffee Beans - How To Grind

2011-12-21T23:14:00.001-08:00

Air is the enemy of all coffee drinkers. Once air comes in contact with your coffee grinds, they begin to lose their flavor. Coffee manufacturers vacuum seal their grinds to keep them fresh while they sit on the shelves at the supermarket but once you break that seal, it's all downhill from there. Buying whole coffee beans and grinding them yourself is a great way to ensure that your coffee remains as flavorful as possible. But do you know how to grind your coffee beans properly?Different types of coffee calls for different types of grinds. So you'll need to learn to use your coffee grinder properly if you want to make the freshest best tasting coffee possible.If you plan on brewing your coffee with a percolator or a French Press coffee maker then you'll need a coarser grind. Place the coffee beans in your coffee grinder and tap the grind button a few times as you would use the pulse feature on your food processor. The goal is to break the beans up so that they look like tiny pieces of coffee bean. If they look like a powder, then you need to slowly back away from the coffee grinder and start again. Remember to tap the button and not hold it down.Automatic drip coffee makers work best with medium grinds. Picture the grinds that you'd find in a can of supermarket coffee. Those are medium grinds. They can be described as looking like brown sand. So remember the last time you went to the beach but instead of seeing the sand in between your toes, imagine seeing sand in your coffee maker. Once again, while holding the coffee grinder button, don't get carried away and over grind your coffee beans. You do not want a fine powder if you're going to use an automatic coffee maker.Finally if your using an espresso maker, you want those fine powdery grinds that you've been trying to avoid when making coarse and medium grinds. So grind away until your heart is content.Grinding your own coffee beans right before you brew your coffee is a great way to make sure that you're getting the freshest cup of coffee possible. But a fresh cup of coffee can still be bitter or weak. Learning how to grind your coffee beans is an important part of making great coffee.

Relationship - Sacrificing Values Can Not Save It

2011-12-21T23:13:00.001-08:00

Every relationship demands sacrifices. Every relationship demands adjustment. It is give and take all the way. Some call it compromise. Others call it negotiation of needs. Whatever you call it, the truth is that we accept what our partner wants despite our being against it and vice versa many times.We all have our values. There are certain principals by which we live. We have acceptable and non-acceptable adjustments. Ask a green activist to adjust to killing of whales. He/she would never do that. That is unacceptable to them. That goes against their value. Similarly for some people any extra marital love is totally unacceptable. If they find out that their spouse was involved in one, the relationship may break. It is simple - I will never compromise on this set of values that I cherish.As I said earlier, every relationship is based on give and take. For example I may be in great and passionate love with my partner. If he/she wants me to compromise on my values what should I do? I have two options. If he/she does not agree, I will either break my limits or break the relationship. Say, I break my values. What will now happen to my relationship? I will begin hating him/her for making me break my limits. I may wonder - why he/she could not respect my values? Does he/she have no respect for what I think and value? Why did he/she insist that I break my principles? Why cannot he/she adjust and agree to my point of view?Any compromise on highly cherished values will doom the relationship soon. You will be a loser both the ways.

Fact and Truth

2011-12-21T22:58:00.001-08:00

Thought experiments (Gedankenexperimenten) are "facts" in the sense that they have a "real life" correlate in the form of electrochemical activity in the brain. But it is quite obvious that they do not relate to facts "out there". They are not true statements.But do they lack truth because they do not relate to facts? How are Truth and Fact interrelated?One answer is that Truth pertains to the possibility that an event will occur. If true – it must occur and if false – it cannot occur. This is a binary world of extreme existential conditions. Must all possible events occur? Of course not. If they do not occur would they still be true? Must a statement have a real life correlate to be true?Instinctively, the answer is yes. We cannot conceive of a thought divorced from brainwaves. A statement which remains a mere potential seems to exist only in the nether land between truth and falsity. It becomes true only by materializing, by occurring, by matching up with real life. If we could prove that it will never do so, we would have felt justified in classifying it as false. This is the outgrowth of millennia of concrete, Aristotelian logic. Logical statements talk about the world and, therefore, if a statement cannot be shown to relate directly to the world, it is not true.This approach, however, is the outcome of some underlying assumptions:First, that the world is finite and also close to its end. To say that something that did not happen cannot be true is to say that it will never happen (i.e., to say that time and space – the world – are finite and are about to end momentarily).Second, truth and falsity are assumed to be mutually exclusive. Quantum and fuzzy logics have long laid this one to rest. There are real world situations that are both true and not-true. A particle can "be" in two places at the same time. This fuzzy logic is incompatible with our daily experiences but if there is anything that we have learnt from physics in the last seven decades it is that the world is incompatible with our daily experiences.The third assumption is that the psychic realm is but a subset of the material one. We are membranes with a very particular hole-size. We filter through only well defined types of experiences, are equipped with limited (and evolutionarily biased) senses, programmed in a way which tends to sustain us until we die. We are not neutral, objective observers. Actually, the very concept of observer is disputable – as modern physics, on the one hand and Eastern philosophy, on the other hand, have shown.Imagine that a mad scientist has succeeded to infuse all the water in the world with a strong hallucinogen. At a given moment, all the people in the world see a huge flying saucer. What can we say about this saucer? Is it true? Is it "real"?There is little doubt that the saucer does not exist. But who is to say so? If this statement is left unsaid – does it mean that it cannot exist and, therefore, is untrue? In this case (of the illusionary flying saucer), the statement that remains unsaid is a true statement – and the statement that is uttered by millions is patently false.Still, the argument can be made that the flying saucer did exist – though only in the minds of those who drank the contaminated water. What is this form of existence? In which sense does a hallucination "exist"? The psychophysical problem is that no causal relationship can be established between a thought and its real life correlate, the brainwaves that accompany it. Moreover, this leads to infinite regression. If the brainwaves created the thought – who created them, who made them happen? In other words: who is it (perhaps what is it) that thinks?The subject is so convoluted that to say that the mental is a mere subset of the material is to speculateIt is, therefore, advisable to separate the ontological from the epistemological. But which is which? Facts are determined epistemologically and statistically by conscious and intelligent observers. Their "existence" rests on a sound epistemological footing. Yet we assume that in the absence of observers facts will continue their existence, will not lose their "factuality", their real life quality which is observer-independent and invariant.What about truth? Surely, it rests on solid ontological foundations. Something is or is not true in reality and that is it. But then we saw that truth is determined psychically and, therefore, is vulnerable, for instance, to hallucinations. Moreover, the blurring of the lines in Quantum, non-Aristotelian, logics implies one of two: either that true and false are only "in our heads" (epistemological) – or that something is wrong with our interpretation of the world, with our exegetic mechanism (brain). If the latter case is true that the world does contain mutually exclusive true and false values – but the organ which identifies these entities (the brain) has gone awry. The paradox is that the second approach also assumes that at least the perception of true and false values is dependent on the existence of an epistemological detection device.Can something be true and reality and false in our minds? Of course it can (remember "Rashomon"). Could the reverse be true? Yes, it can. This is what we call optical or sensory illusions. Even solidity is an illusion of our senses – there are no such things as solid objects (remember the physicist's desk which is 99.99999% vacuum with minute granules of matter floating about).To reconcile these two concepts, we must let go of the old belief (probably vital to our sanity) that we can know the world. We probably cannot and this is the source of our confusion. The world may be inhabited by "true" things and "false" things. It may be true that truth is existence and falsity is non-existence. But we will never know because we are incapable of knowing anything about the world as it is.We are, however, fully equipped to know about the mental events inside our heads. It is there that the representations of the real world form. We are acquainted with these representations (concepts, images, symbols, language in general) – and mistake them for the world itself. Since we have no way of directly knowing the world (without the intervention of our interpretative mechanisms) we are unable to tell when a certain representation corresponds to an event which is observer-independent and invariant and when it corresponds to nothing of the kind. When we see an image – it could be the result of an interaction with light outside us (objectively "real"), or the result of a dream, a drug induced illusion, fatigue and any other number of brain events not correlated with the real world. These are observer-dependent phenomena and, subject to an agreement between a sufficient number of observers, they are judged to be true or "to have happened" (e.g., religious miracles).To ask if something is true or not is not a meaningful question unless it relates to our internal world and to our capacity as observers. When we say "true" we mean "exists", or "existed", or "most definitely will exist" (the sun will rise tomorrow). But existence can only be ascertained in our minds. Truth, therefore, is nothing but a state of mind. Existence is determined by observing and comparing the two (the outside and the inside, the real and the mental). This yields a picture of the world which may be closely correlated to reality – and, yet again, may not.

Bapak Tua Penjual Amplop

2011-12-20T05:19:00.001-08:00

Setiap menuju ke Masjid Salman ITB untuk shalat Jumat, saya selalu melihat seorang bapak tua yang duduk terpekur di depan dagangannya. Dia menjual kertas amplop yang sudah dibungkus di dalam plastik. Sepintas barang jualannya itu terasa “aneh” di antara pedagang lain yang memenuhi pasar kaget di seputaran Jalan Ganesha setiap hari Jumat. Pedagang di pasar kaget umumnya berjualan makanan, pakaian, DVD bajakan, barang mainan anak, sepatu dan barang-barang asesori lainnya. Tentu agak aneh dia “nyempil” sendiri menjual amplop, barang yang tidak terlalu dibutuhkan pada zaman yang serba elektronis seperti saat ini. Masa kejayaan pengiriman surat secara konvensional sudah berlalu, namun bapak itu tetap menjual amplop. Mungkin bapak itu tidak mengikuti perkembangan zaman, apalagi perkembangan teknologi informasi yang serba cepat dan instan, sehingga dia pikir masih ada orang yang membutuhkan amplop untuk berkirim surat. Kehadiran bapak tua dengan dagangannya yang tidak laku-laku itu menimbulkan rasa iba. Siapa sih yang mau membeli amplopnya itu? Tidak satupun orang yang lewat menuju masjid tertarik untuk membelinya. Lalu lalang orang yang bergegas menuju masjid Salman seolah tidak mempedulikan kehadiran bapak tua itu. Kemarin ketika hendak shalat Jumat di Salman saya melihat bapak tua itu lagi sedang duduk terpekur. Saya sudah berjanji akan membeli amplopnya itu usai shalat, meskipun sebenarnya saya tidak terlalu membutuhkan benda tersebut. Yach, sekedar ingin membantu bapak itu melariskan dagangannya. Seusai shalat Jumat dan hendak kembali ke kantor, saya menghampiri bapak tadi. Saya tanya berapa harga amplopnya dalam satu bungkusa plastik itu. “Seribu”, jawabnya dengan suara lirih. Oh Tuhan, harga sebungkus amplop yang isinnya sepuluh lembar itu hanya seribu rupiah? Uang sebesar itu hanya cukup untuk membeli dua gorengan bala-bala pada pedagang gorengan di dekatnya. Uang seribu rupiah yang tidak terlalu berarti bagi kita, tetapi bagi bapak tua itu sangatlah berarti. Saya tercekat dan berusaha menahan air mata keharuan mendengar harga yang sangat murah itu. “Saya beli ya pak, sepuluh bungkus”, kata saya. Bapak itu terlihat gembira karena saya membeli amplopnya dalam jumlah banyak. Dia memasukkan sepuluh bungkus amplop yang isinya sepuluh lembar per bungkusnya ke dalam bekas kotak amplop. Tangannya terlihat bergetar ketika memasukkan bungkusan amplop ke dalam kotak. Saya bertanya kembali kenapa dia menjual amplop semurah itu. Padahal kalau kita membeli amplop di warung tidak mungkin dapat seratus rupiah satu. Dengan uang seribu mungkin hanya dapat lima buah amplop. Bapak itu menunjukkan kepada saya lembar kwitansi pembelian amplop di toko grosir. Tertulis di kwitansi itu nota pembelian 10 bungkus amplop surat senilai Rp7500. “Bapak cuma ambil sedikit”, lirihnya. Jadi, dia hanya mengambil keuntungan Rp250 untuk satu bungkus amplop yang isinya 10 lembar itu. Saya jadi terharu mendengar jawaban jujur si bapak tua. Jika pedagang nakal ‘menipu’ harga dengan menaikkan harga jual sehingga keuntungan berlipat-lipat, bapak tua itu hanya mengambil keuntungan yang tidak seberapa. Andaipun terjual sepuluh bungkus amplop saja keuntungannya tidak sampai untuk membeli nasi bungkus di pinggir jalan. Siapalah orang yang mau membeli amplop banyak-banyak pada zaman sekarang? Dalam sehari belum tentu laku sepuluh bungkus saja, apalagi untuk dua puluh bungkus amplop agar dapat membeli nasi. Setelah selesai saya bayar Rp10.000 untuk sepuluh bungkus amplop, saya kembali menuju kantor. Tidak lupa saya selipkan sedikit uang lebih buat bapak tua itu untuk membeli makan siang. Si bapak tua menerima uang itu dengan tangan bergetar sambil mengucapkan terima kasih dengan suara hampir menangis. Saya segera bergegas pergi meninggalkannya karena mata ini sudah tidak tahan untuk meluruhkan air mata. Sambil berjalan saya teringat status seorang teman di facebook yang bunyinya begini: “bapak-bapak tua menjajakan barang dagangan yang tak laku-laku, ibu-ibu tua yang duduk tepekur di depan warungnya yang selalu sepi. Carilah alasan-alasan untuk membeli barang-barang dari mereka, meski kita tidak membutuhkannya saat ini. Jangan selalu beli barang di mal-mal dan toko-toko yang nyaman dan lengkap..”. Si bapak tua penjual amplop adalah salah satu dari mereka, yaitu para pedagang kaki lima yang barangnya tidak laku-laku. Cara paling mudah dan sederhana untuk membantu mereka adalah bukan memberi mereka uang, tetapi belilah jualan mereka atau pakailah jasa mereka. Meskipun barang-barang yang dijual oleh mereka sedikit lebih mahal daripada harga di mal dan toko, tetapi dengan membeli dagangan mereka insya Allah lebih banyak barokahnya, karena secara tidak langsung kita telah membantu kelangsungan usaha dan hidup mereka. Dalam pandangan saya bapak tua itu lebih terhormat daripada pengemis yang berkeliaran di masjid Salman, meminta-minta kepada orang yang lewat. Para pengemis itu mengerahkan anak-anak untuk memancing iba para pejalan kaki. Tetapi si bapak tua tidak mau mengemis, ia tetap kukuh berjualan amplop yang keuntungannya tidak seberapa itu. Di kantor saya amati lagi bungkusan amplop yang saya beli dari si bapak tua tadi. Mungkin benar saya tidak terlalu membutuhkan amplop surat itu saat ini, tetapi uang sepuluh ribu yang saya keluarkan tadi sangat dibutuhkan si bapak tua. Kotak amplop yang berisi 10 bungkus amplop tadi saya simpan di sudut meja kerja. Siapa tahu nanti saya akan memerlukannya. Mungkin pada hari Jumat pekan-pekan selanjutnya saya akan melihat si bapak tua berjualan kembali di sana, duduk melamun di depan dagangannya yang tak laku-laku. Oleh: Rinaldi Munir, Bandung.

peraturan asrama meurut rektor

2011-12-20T04:25:00.001-08:00

PERATURANREKTOR INSTITUT PERTANIAN BOGORNomor : 14/I3/KM/2010TentangPENGELOLAAN ASRAMA MAHASISWAPROGRAM PENDIDIKAN SARJANA (S1) REGULERINSTITUT PERTANIAN BOGORREKTOR INSTITUT PERTANIAN BOGORMenimbang : a. bahwa selama ini mahasiswa Program Pendidikan Sarjana (S1) IPB umumnya berasal dari berbagai daerah di seluruh Indonesia dengan latar belakang sosial budaya dan tingkat kemampuan ekonomi yang beragam; b. bahwa dengan beragamnya latar belakang sosial budaya mahasiswa sebagaimana dimaksud pada butir a tersebut di atas, sejak tahun 2002 IPB telah menyelenggarakan program pembinaan akademik dan multi budaya khususnya untuk mahasiswa Program Pendidikan Sarjana (S1) reguler dengan mewajibkan kepada mahasiswa baru Tingkat Persiapan Bersama IPB pada tahun pertama untuk tinggal di Asrama Mahasiswa TPB; c. bahwa dalam rangka membantu menyediakan fasilitas pemondokan bagimahasiswa Program Pendidikan Sarjana (S1) reguler yang berasal dari keluargayang kurang mampu secara ekonomi dan mahasiswa lainnya, selain asramasebagaimana dimaksud pada butir b tersebut di atas IPB menyediakan pulafasilitas pemondokan berupa asrama untuk mahasiswa semester 3 ke atas;d. bahwa dengan terbatasnya jumlah asrama yang tersedia dan makin banyaknyamahasiswa yang memerlukan fasilitas tersebut, optimalisasi pengelolaan asramamahasiswa IPB perlu terus dilakukan dengan penggunaannya secara lebihefisien dan tepat sasaran.e. bahwa sehubungan dengan butir d tersebut di atas, dan sesuai dengan usul dariWakil Rektor Bidang Akademik & Kemahasiswaan IPB, maka ketentuantentang pengelolaan asrama sebagaimana ditetapkan dalam Keputusan RektorIPB No-mor : 143/Um/1991 yang selama ini berlaku sudah tidak sesuai lagi,dan selanjutnya dipandang perlu untuk mengubah ketentuan dimaksud denganmenetapkan ketentuan yang baru, dan pengaturannya perlu ditetapkan dengansuatu peraturan Rektor.Mengingat : 1. Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 20 Tahun 2003 tentang Sistem Pendidikan Nasional (Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 2003 Nomor 78, Tambahan Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Nomor 4301); 2. Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 154 Tahun 2000 tentang Penetapan Institut Pertanian Bogor sebagai Badan Hukum Milik Negara (Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 2000 Nomor 272); 3. Peraturan Pemerintah Republik Indonesia Nomor 17 Tahun 2010 tentang Pengelolaan dan Penyelenggaraan Pendidikan (Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 2010 Nomor 23, Tambahan Lembaran Negara Republik Indonesia Nomor 5105);4. Keputusan Presiden Republik Indonesia Nomor 279 Tahun 1965 tentangPendirian Institut Pertanian Bogor;5. Keputusan Menteri Keuangan Republik Indonesia Nomor 698/KMK.06/2006tentang Penetapan Nilai Kekayaan Negara yang tertanam pada Institut PertanianBogor (IPB) sebagai kekayaan awal IPB sebagai Badan Hukum Milik Negara;6. Keputusan Menteri Pendidikan Nasional Republik Indonesia Nomor129/M/2007 tentang Penghapusan Barang Inventaris dari Daftar InventarisSebagai Barang Milik Negara yang Tertanam Pada Institut Pertanian Bogor;7. Ketetapan Majelis Wali Amanat Institut Pertanian Bogor Nomor 17/MWA-IPB/2003 tentang Anggaran Rumah Tangga Institut Pertanian Bogor;8. Ketetapan Majelis Wali Amanat Institut Pertanian Bogor Nomor 72/MWA-IPB/2007 tentang Pengangkatan Rektor Institut Pertanian Bogor Periode 2007-2012;9. Ketetapan Majelis Wali Amanat Institut Pertanian Bogor Nomor 77/MWA-IPB/2008 tentang Pengesahan Struktur Organisasi Institut Pertanian Bogor.MEMUTUSKANMenetapkan: PERATURAN REKTOR INSTITUT PERTANIAN BOGOR TENTANGPENGELOLAAN ASRAMA MAHASISWA PROGRAM PENDIDIKANSARJANA (1) REGULER INSTITUT PERTANIAN BOGOR.BAB IKETENTUAN UMUMPasal 1Dalam peraturan ini yang dimaksud dengan :1. Asrama Mahasiswa adalah fasilitas pemondokan yang disediakan oleh IPB khusus untukmahasiswa.2. Mahasiswa adalah seseorang yang terdaftar secara sah sebagai mahasiswa reguler pada ProgramPendidikan Sarjana (S1) IPB.3. Wakil Rektor adalah Wakil Rektor IPB yang bertanggungjawab dalam bidang kemahasiswaan.4. Kepala Asrama IPB adalah pejabat yang ditugaskan oleh Rektor IPB dan bertanggungjawabdalam pengelolaan Asrama Mahasiswa.5. Surat Ijin Menghuni (SIM) adalah ijin tertulis yang diberikan kepada mahasiswa dan dikeluarkanoleh Kepala Asrama IPB untuk menghuni Asrama Mahasiswa selama jangka waktu tertentu.Pasal 2Peraturan ini dibuat dengan tujuan, untuk :a. Melaksanakan program IPB dalam pembinaan multi budaya khususnya bagi mahasiswa TPBProgram Pendidikan Sarjana IPB;b. Meningkatkan kesejahteraan mahasiswa dengan membantu menyediakan fasilitas pemondokanbagi mahasiswa Program Pendidikan Sarjana (S1) reguler yang memerlukan;c. Mengoptimalkan pengelolaan Asrama Mahasiswa melalui penggunaannya secara lebih efisien,tertib administrasi dan tepat sasaran;d. Memberi kesempatan secara berkeadilan kepada mahasiswa Program Pendidikan Sarjana (S1)reguler yang memerlukan dan memenuhi syarat untuk menggunakan Asrama Mahasiswa sesuaidengan kapasitas tampung yang tersedia;e. Memelihara dan mengembangkan fasilitas Asrama Mahasiswa sebagai aset IPB agar dapatdigunakan untuk mewujudkan kesejahteraan mahasiswa;f. Memberikan landasan hukum sebagai acuan dalam pengelolaan dan pemberian ijin menghuniAsrama Mahasiswa.Pasal 3(1) Setiap mahasiswa dapat mengajukan permohonan ijin untuk menghuni Asrama Mahasiswakecuali untuk Asrama Mahasiswa yang penggunaannya telah ditetapkan secara khusus.(2) Setiap mahasiswa sebagai penghuni asrama harus mempunyai SIM.BAB IIPENGELOLAAN ASRAMA MAHASISWAPasal 4(1) Asrama Mahasiswa yang disediakan IPB berupa Asrama Mahasiswa TPB dan AsramaMahasiswa Program Sarjana Reguler.(2) Asrama Mahasiswa TPB merupakan fasilitas pemondokan yang penggunaannya ditetapkankhusus untuk mahasiswa TPB Program Pendidikan Sarjana IPB.(3) Asrama Mahasiswa Program Sarjana Reguler merupakan fasilitas pemondokan yangpenggunaannya ditetapkan khusus untuk mahasiswa Program Pendidikan Sarjana reguler IPB.Pasal 5(1) Pengelolaan Asrama Mahasiswa dilakukan oleh suatu unit kerja pengelola yang dibentuk olehRektor IPB dan diberi tugas khusus untuk mengelola Asrama Mahasiswa.(2) Unit kerja sebagaimana dimaksud pada Ayat (1) pasal ini, dipimpin oleh seorang Kepala AsramaIPB dan bertanggungjawab kepada Wakil Rektor.(3) Dalam pelaksanaan tugasnya, Kepala Asrama IPB dibantu oleh unit kerja di bawahnya danditetapkan oleh Rektor IPB.(4) Untuk mendorong kegiatan kemahasiswaan khususnya peningkatan kompetensi dan soft skill, danmembantu menyelesaikan permasalahan yang berkaitan dengan mahasiswa penghuni asrama,Kepala Asrama IPB membentuk Pengurus Mahasiswa Penghuni Asrama pada masing-masingAsrama Mahasiswa.Pasal 6Tugas dan wewenang dari Pengelola Asrama Mahasiswa, adalah :a. Menginventarisasi seluruh fasilitas dan perlengkapan Asrama Mahasiswa dan kelengkapandokumen pendukungnya;b. Menetapkan ketentuan tata tertib menghuni asrama;c. Mengatur penempatan dan menerima mahasiswa yang akan menggunakan Asrama MahasiswaTPB;d. Melaksanakan program IPB dalam pembinaan akademik dan multi budaya bagi mahasiswa TPBProgram Pendidikan Sarjana IPB;e. Menangani permasalahan yang berkaitan dengan pelaksanaan program pembinaan akademik danmulti budaya, dan permasalahan lainnya yang berkaitan dengan mahasiswa penghuni AsramaMahasiswa TPB;f. Menerima permohonan ijin menghuni Asrama Mahasiswa Program Sarjana Reguler dengankelengkapan berkas permohonan yang diperlukan;g. Menetapkan penghuni asrama berdasarkan hasil seleksi dan usulan dari unit kerja yangmenangani urusan kemahasiswaan IPB, dan mengeluarkan SIM;h. Mengeluarkan Surat Pencabutan Ijin Menghuni (SPIM) bagi mahasiswa penghuni asramasebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 19 Ayat (1) dan (2);i.Mengeluarkan Surat Bebas Asrama (SBA) sebagai persyaratan kelengkapan administrasi untukmemperoleh Surat Keterangan Lulus (SKL);j.Mengadministrasikan penggunaan dan pemberian ijin menghuni Asrama Mahasiswa;k. Mengusulkan kebutuhan dan mengelola biaya operasional sesuai dengan ketentuan pengelolaandana IPB;l.Memonitor dan mengevaluasi penggunaan Asrama Mahasiswa secara berkala;m. Menangani permasalahan yang berkaitan dengan fasilitas dan kepenghunian Asrama Mahasiswa;n. Menangani kerusakan fisik ringan bangunan dan perlengkapan Asrama Mahasiswa;o. Memeriksa kondisi fisik bangunan dan perlengkapan Asrama Mahasiswa dan mengusulkanperbaikan kerusakan sedang dan berat, dan pengadaan yang baru kepada unit kerja yangmenangani urusan fasilitas & properti IPB;p. Menyelesaikan urusan administrasi yang terkait dengan pengelolaan Asrama Mahasiswa;q. Melakukan koordinasi dengan unit kerja terkait di lingkungan IPB dalam rangka pelaksanaantugas dan pengelolaan Asrama Mahasiswa;r. Melaporkan hasil pelaksanaan tugas kepada Wakil Rektor sekurang-kurangnya 6 (enam) bulansekali.Pasal 7(1) Pemeliharaan dan pengembangan fisik bangunan Asrama Mahasiswa sebagai aset IPBmerupakan tanggungjawab IPB dan pembiayaannya dibebankan pada Anggaran IPB.(2) Partisipasi dan kontribusi dana yang tidak mengikat dari pihak lain dapat dilakukan melaluimekanisme anggaran dan/atau ketentuan pengadaan barang dan jasa yang berlaku di lingkunganIPB.BAB IIIKETENTUAN PENGHUNIAN ASRAMA MAHASISWAPasal 8Ketentuan dalam Bab III ini berlaku bagi semua mahasiswa yang akan dan/atau telah menghuniAsrama Mahasiswa kecuali bagi mahasiswa TPB Program Pendidikan Sarjana IPB yangmenggunakan Asrama Mahasiswa TPB yang telah ditetapkan dengan aturan tersendiri.Pasal 9Syarat-syarat calon penghuni Asrama Mahasiswa Program Sarjana Reguler, yaitu :a. Mahasiswa Program Pendidikan Sarjana Reguler IPB;b. Semester 3 (tiga) ke atas;c. Berasal dari keluarga yang ekonominya kurang mampu diprioritaskan;d. Mendapat rekomendasi dari Ketua Departemen.Pasal 10(1) Ijin menghuni untuk setiap mahasiswa pada suatu Asrama Mahasiswa diberikan selama-lamanya2 (dua) tahun.(2) Berdasarkan hasil evaluasi, ketentuan masa penghunian sebagaimana dimaksud pada Ayat (1)pasal ini dapat diperpanjang selama-lamanya 1 (satu) tahun apabila mahasiswa yangbersangkutan pindah ke Asrama Mahasiswa yang berbeda.Pasal 11(1) Masa penghunian Asrama Mahasiswa akan berakhir, apabila :a. Berakhirnya masa penghunian sebagaimana ditetapkan dalam SIM;b. Berhenti sebagai mahasiswa IPB;c. Dinyatakan telah melanggar ketentuan tata tertib menghuni asrama oleh Pengelola AsramaMahasiswa;d. Tidak memenuhi lagi persyaratan sebagaimana ditetapkan dalam Pasal 9 peraturan ini.(2) Berakhirnya masa penghunian fasilitas hunian sebagaimana dimaksud pada Ayat (1) huruf a danb pasal ini, berlaku secara otomatis tanpa perlu menunggu dikeluarkannya pemberitahuan tertulis.(3) Setelah masa penghunian berakhir, penghuni Asrama Mahasiswa diwajibkan menyerahkankembali fasilitas dan/atau perlengkapan yang digunakan, dan diserahkan kembali kepadaPengelola Asrama Mahasiswa.(4) Penyerahan fasilitas dan/atau perlengkapan Asrama Mahasiswa yang telah berakhir masapenghuniannya harus dilakukan oleh penghuni selambat-lambatnya 7 (tujuh) hari setelah masapenghunian berakhir atau setelah menerima Surat Pemberitahuan Tertulis.(5) Penghuni yang akan meninggalkan Asrama Mahasiswa wajib memberitahukan kepada PengelolaAsrama Mahasiswa selambat-lambatnya 7 (tujuh) hari sebelumnya.(6) Apabila setelah masa penghunian berakhir sebagaimana dimaksud pada Ayat (3) pasal inipenghuni tidak menyerahkan kembali fasilitas dan/atau perlengkapan yang telah digunakan, makaPengelola Asrama Mahasiswa dapat mengambil tindakan yang diperlukan termasuk memintabantuan kepada pihak Unit Keamanan Kampus IPB dalam rangka pengamanan aset IPB.(7) Penghuni Asrama Mahasiswa dilarang menyerahkan atau mengalihkan seluruhnya atau sebagianhak kepenghuniannya kepada pihak lain.(8) Pelanggaran terhadap ketentuan Ayat (7) pasal ini, dapat dikenakan sanksi pencabutan izinmenghuni.Pasal 12(1) Penghunian Asrama Mahasiswa ditetapkan dengan SIM yang dikeluarkan oleh Kepala AsramaIPB sesuai dengan ketentuan Pasal 3 Ayat (2) peraturan ini.(2) Prosedur penetapan penghuni Asrama Mahasiswa, yaitu :a. Pemohon mengajukan permohonan tertulis untuk mendapatkan ijin menghuni AsramaMahasiswa yang ditujukan kepada Kepala Asrama IPB berdasarkan rekomendasi dandilengkapi dengan dokumen pendukung persyaratan sebagaimana ditetapkan dalam Pasal 7peraturan ini;b. Kepala Asrama IPB menyampaikan berkas permohonan tersebut di atas kepada unit kerjayang menangani urusan kemahasiswaan IPB, untuk diseleksi dan ditentukan nama calonpenghuni Asrama Mahasiswa;c. Berdasarkan hasil seleksi sebagaimana tersebut pada butir b di atas, Kepala Asrama IPBmenetapkan penghuni Asrama Mahasiswa dengan mengeluarkan SIM.Pasal 13Setiap penghuni Asrama Mahasiswa, dilarang :a. Merubah, menambah atau mengurangi bangunan fisik fasilitas dan/atau perlengkapan AsramaMahasiswa;b. Menyewakan seluruhnya atau sebagian bangunan fisik fasilitas dan/atau perlengkapan kepadapihak lain;c. Menunjuk pihak lain sebagai penghuni Asrama Mahasiswa;d. Mengalih-fungsikan fasilitas Asrama Mahasiswa;.e. Membiarkan kosong/tidak dihuni selama 3 (tiga) bulan atau lebih.Pasal 14Setiap penghuni Asrama Mahasiswa, berkewajiban :a. Memiliki SIM;b. Mematuhi seluruh ketentuan yang diatur dalam peraturan ini dan ketentuan lainnya yangditetapkan oleh Pengelola Asrama Mahasiswa;c. Merawat fasilitas dan/atau perlengkapan yang digunakan dengan sebaik-baiknya;d. Memberikan dana kontribusi Asrama Mahasiswa kepada IPB sebagaimana ditetapkan dalamPasal 16 peraturan ini.Pasal 15Setiap biaya yang timbul atas perawatan fasilitas dan/atau perlengkapan yang dilakukan oleh penghunidalam rangka pemeliharaan ataupun hal lain tidak dapat dimintakan ganti rugi dalam bentuk apapunkepada IPB.BAB IVDANA KONTRIBUSI OPERASIONAL ASRAMA MAHASISWAPasal 16(1) Setiap penghuni Asrama Mahasiswa diwajibkan memberi dana kontribusi operasional AsramaMahasiswa kepada IPB.(2) Setiap calon penghuni asrama disyaratkan harus memberi dana deposit sekurang-kurangnyasebesar 3 (tiga) kali dari besaran dana kontribusi yang ditetapkan;(3) Dana deposit sebagaimana dimaksud pada Ayat (2) pasal ini, digunakan sebagai jaminan apabilatimbul kerugian bagi asrama dan kerugian tersebut menjadi tanggungjawab dari penghuni asrama.Dana tersebut akan dikembalikan sepenuhnya kepada yang bersangkutan pada waktu berakhirnyamasa penghunian apabila selama menghuni di asrama yang bersangkutan tidak pernahmenimbulkan kerugian apapun.(4) Besaran dana kontribusi sebagaimana dimaksud pada Ayat (1) pasal ini, untuk setiap jenisAsrama Mahasiswa ditentukan dengan mempertimbangkan tipe kamar dan jenis asrama, dan akanditetapkan dengan aturan tersendiri.(5) Biaya konsumsi, keperluan sehari-hari dan kebutuhan perlengkapan tambahan dari mahasiswasebagai penghuni Asrama Mahasiswa merupakan tanggungjawab dari masing-masing pribadimahasiswa yang bersangkutan.Pasal 17(1) Dana kontribusi sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 16 peraturan ini, merupakan pendapatan IPBdan termasuk ke dalam Dana Masyarakat IPB.(2) Dana sebagaimana dimaksud pada Ayat (1) pasal ini, disetorkan melalui transfer ke rekeningbank atas nama Rektor IPB yang telah ditentukan, dan foto copy bukti transfer diserahkan kepadaPengelola Asrama Mahasiswa.(3) Dana kontribusi sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Ayat (1) pasal ini, digunakan untuk keperluanoperasional Asrama Mahasiswa berupa biaya daya dan jasa, kebersihan, keamanan, pengadaanperalatan dan perlengkapan rumah tangga, pemeliharaan dan biaya operasional serta manajemenlainnya.(4) Penggunaan dana sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Ayat (3) pasal ini, dilakukan oleh PengelolaAsrama Mahasiswa melalui mekanisme Surat Pengesahan Penggunaan Anggaran (SPPA) sesuaidengan ketentuan yang berlaku dalam pengelolaan dana IPB.BAB VKETENTUAN SANKSIPasal 18(1) Setiap pelanggaran terhadap ketentuan yang diatur dalam peraturan ini dan/atau ketentuan tatatertib menghuni Asrama Mahasiswa dapat dikenakan sanksi, sebagai berikut :a. Peringatan tertulis sebanyak-banyaknya 3 (tiga) kali dengan tenggang waktu 7 (tujuh) harikalender antara Peringatan I, II dan III;b. Pencabutan izin menghuni Asrama Mahasiswa;(2) Sebagai tindak lanjut atas sanksi sebagaimana dimaksud pada Ayat (1) pasal ini, PengelolaAsrama Mahasiswa dapat mengambil tindakan yang diperlukan termasuk meminta bantuan pihakUnit Keamanan Kampus IPB dalam rangka pengamanan aset IPB.(3) Segala biaya yang timbul akibat sanksi sebagaimana dimaksud pada Ayat (1) pasal ini bukanmenjadi beban atau tanggung jawab IPB.Pasal 19Pelaksanaan sanksi dalam bentuk pencabutan izin menghuni sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Pasal 18Ayat (1) huruf b dilakukan dengan cara :(1) Kepala Asrama Mahasiswa IPB dapat mencabut ijin menghuni bagi penghuni Asrama Mahasiswaberdasarkan hal-hal sebagai berikut :a. Penyerahan kembali Asrama Mahasiswa oleh penghuni sebelum berakhir masa penghunian;b. Berakhir jangka waktu penghunian sebagaimana disebutkan pada Pasal 10 peraturan ini;c. Penerapan sanksi pencabutan izin menghuni karena pelanggaran ketentuan baik yang diaturdalam peraturan ini atau terhadap ketentuan tata tertib menghuni Asrama Mahasiswa yangditetapkan oleh Pengelola Asrama Mahasiswa.2) Kepala Asrama Mahasiswa IPB menetapkan pencabutan ijin penghunian dengan mengeluarkanSurat Pencabutan Ijin Menghuni.3) Seluruh biaya yang timbul dari perawatan fasilitas dan/atau perlengkapan Asrama Mahasiswamenjadi tanggung jawab penuh penghuni dan tidak dapat diajukan penggantian/tuntutan dalambentuk apapun kepada IPB.BAB VIKETENTUAN PERALIHANPasal 20Kepada Mahasiswa IPB yang pada saat berlakunya peraturan ini :(1) Telah memperoleh Surat Ijin Menghuni kurang dari 1 (satu) tahun dapat melanjutkanpenghuniannya sesuai jangka waktu yang ditentukan sebagaimana disebutkan pada Pasal 10 Ayat(1) peraturan ini.(2) Penghuni yang telah menghuni tapi belum memiliki Surat Ijin Menghuni diwajibkan mengurusijin penghuniannya selambat-lambatnya 3 (tiga) bulan sejak peraturan ini ditetapkan.(3) Apabila dalam jangka waktu yang telah ditetapkan, penghuni sebagaimana dimaksud dalam Ayat(2) pasal ini tidak mengurus ijin penghuniannya, yang bersangkutan wajib menyerahkan fasilitasdan/atau perlengkapan yang digunakan kepada IPB melalui Pengelola Asrama Mahasiswa.(4) Seluruh biaya yang timbul dari perubahan, pemeliharaan atau perawatan fasilitas dan/atauperlengkapan yang selama ini telah dilakukan oleh penghuni menjadi tanggung jawab penuhpenghuni, dan tidak dapat diajukan penggantian/tuntutan dalam bentuk apapun kepada IPB.BAB VIIKETENTUAN PENUTUPPasal 21(1) Hal-hal lain yang diperlukan dan belum diatur dalam peraturan ini akan diatur lebih lanjut denganaturan tersendiri.(2) Dengan ditetapkan peraturan ini, maka ketentuan sebagaimana ditetapkan dalam KeputusanRektor IPB Nomor : 143/Um/1991 tanggal 31 Desember 1991 tentang Pengelolaan AsramaMahasiswa IPB dinyatakan tidak berlaku lagi.(3) Peraturan ini mulai berlaku sejak ditetapkan.Ditetapkan di : BogorPada tanggal : 2 Agustus 2010Rektor,cap & ttd.Prof. Dr. Ir. Herry Suhardiyanto, M.ScNIP : 19590910 198503 1 003

Girlfriend Gift Ideas

2011-12-20T04:21:00.001-08:00

Whether you're buying for the holidays, birthdays or special occasions, girlfriend gift ideas can be hard to come buy. Here's a list of top gift ideas.Girlfriend Gift IdeasUnless this is your first girlfriend, I'll assume you know jewelry tops the list of best girlfriend gift ideas. That being the case, we'll skip to non-jewelry ideas you can afford. You can find all of these gift ideas online by just searching for them on your search engine of choice.1. 1,000 Thread Count Sheets – .This is a serious luxury item. The softness of a sheet is determined by the thread count. Thread counts are the number of horizontal and vertical threads in one square inch of sheet. Typical thread counts are from 70 to 340 or so. 1,000 thread counts are so soft she will lose her mind. She might never get out of bed! Expect to pay $200 for this pampering girlfriend gift.2. Down Memory Foam Slippers – Slippers? Yes, but not just any slippers. It is winter and she needs something comfortable and warm. The slippers conform to her feet and are made with duck down. They are super warm and, unlike other slippers, can be worn both indoors and outdoors. Expect to pay $45 or so with online retailers. <3. Eyesseuse – The grind of daily life can get her in a bad mood by the time she comes home. This, of course, is bad news for you what with the headaches and all. The Eyesseuse comes to the rescue. The device is worn over the eyes like ski goggles. The device then applies heat, pulses and air pressure to the area around her eyes. This promotes blood circulation and relieves stress around the eye area. Essentially, it is a massage for her eyes and she'll be feeling chipper in no time. Expect to pay in the range of $50 for this gift.4. Nomad Writing Journals – If she loves the outdoors or traveling, Nomad Writing Journals make great gifts. These journals are tailored to activities such as travel, fly fishing, bird watching, backpacking, camping, rock climbing and so on. They come with or without a case and provide writing space as well as cues for writing down important information. A great keepsake for her to preserve travel and outdoor experiences. The journals cost as low as $9 without waterproof case and $25 with case.These girlfriend gift ideas should give a good starting place for buying your girlfriend gifts. Just don't forget the jewelry!

Leather Bookbinding

2011-12-20T04:18:00.000-08:00

Not only can you decorate your leather item, leather itself can be the decoration. Book binding is a great example, which has recently enjoyed renewed popularity. The way you look at this project depends on the condition of the book.You may need to repair the spine and actual page bindings in order to install a new cover. In any case, this first step would be to remove the old cover. http://www.philobiblon.com is a site that has very detailed instructions to walk you through this. Half of the fun of leather book binding is learning about it. http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/don/dt/dt0412.html has information about book binding past, present, and future.Their information is accurate and interesting! You can start from scratch with a hide, or order leather book binding supplies from a reputable supplier such as http://www.hewit.comThere is more to book binding than slapping a cover on. If you want a rich, professional appearance, you'll find numerous books at your local library or in-depth information on the Internet on the process of book binding. Hand-bound books are considered rare, unusual, and in some cases priceless. Therefore, it would be worth your time and money to do it right and enjoy the results. (or profits if you are doing it professionally)

Coffee Beans - How To Grind

2011-12-15T18:50:00.001-08:00

How To Communicate In His Love Language

2011-12-15T18:40:00.001-08:00

How To Communicate In His Love LanguageAre you wondering how to communicate with that new man in your life? Or maybe you are just wondering about the next man in your life? New or old, it's never too late to learn how to communicate in the language of love.Maybe you've seen the tomboyish girl that somehow has men flocking around her. If you stopped turning green with envy for a moment, you'd notice why she was a man magnet. She just sort of fit herself into him, like a piece of a jigsaw puzzle that he didn't even know was missing.Instead of rolling your eyes at that dazed and happy-in-love look he has on his face, why not look into how she did it? Learn these tips on how to communicate in a whole new way by getting to know his love language and speaking it fluently!We all know that love is built on the solid foundation of communication. When we are in love we are on the same page as our lover. It's a special level of communication that people in love have.Some call it chemistry, but really, in order to even get to the chemistry stage you need to know his love language. For a clue as to what that might be, we need to understand how he relates to the world around him.Everyone perceives their world with three senses - sight, sound and feelings. Psychologists have discovered that even though we use all three senses, one of these senses is always more pronounced. It doesn't mean that it replaces the others, but if you pay attention, the more dominant one will reveal itself to you.

HIGIENE DAN SANITASI PENGOLAHAN PANGAN

2011-12-14T04:43:00.001-08:00

BAHAYA BIOLOGIS BAHAYA KIMIABAHAYA FISIK BEBAS BAHAYAAMANKAN PANGANAMANKAN PANGANdandanBEBASKAN PRODUKBEBASKAN PRODUKdaridariBAHAN BERBAHAYABAHAN BERBAHAYADirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIProgram Higiene dan Sanitasi SaranaPengolahan Pangan :berkaitan erat dengan program pembinaanan mutumelibatkan pengendalian terpadu selama proses produksi,pengolahan, penyimpanan, distribusi, persiapan, penyajian,dan konsumsi panganmelindungi masyarakat melalui pengurangan ataupenghilangan bahaya mikroba patogenmeningkatakan mutu dan masa simpan produk serta estetikaDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RI* Program higiene dan sanitasisemua aspekproduksi dan pengolahan produk pangan.* Program higienehigiene pekerja (kesehatan umum,kebersihan & perlengkapan umum)* Program sanitasidari rumah tangga umum s /dpenanganan limbah & fasilitas umum.Direktorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RI* Asal mikroba berasal dari :Pekerja :- Tangan : Mikroba alami (S.epidermidis & S.aureus)Mikroba sementara (feses, bahan mentah,rongga hidung / mulut)- Rongga Hidung, Mulut dan Tenggorokan :melalui pernafasan (S.aureus, C diptheriae, Klebsielapneumonia,Streptococcus pyogenes)Direktorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIPekerjaTangan, rambut, mulut, hidungKontaminasi terjadi melalui: sentuhan, pernafasan,bersin, batukTerjadi selama pengolahan, pengepakan, persiapan,penyajianAtasi dengan: GSP: praktek sanitasi yang baikDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIPekerjaSumber kontaminasi: Staphylococcus, Salmonella,virus hepatitisPekerja yang sakit, sebagai carrier:- Salmonella : beberapa bulan setelah penderitasembuh- hepatitis : setelah 5 tahun dari gejala hilangDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIKulitSumber S. aureus atau S. epidermisBakteri yang tidak mudah pindah adalah Micrococcusluteus dan S. epidermis,S. aureusmudah mengkontaminasiPekerja garuk-garukiritasiDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIJariBakteri ada dijari karena sentuhan dengan sumberkontaminasiHarus diatasi dengan hand-dip sanitizerSarung tangan plastikDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIKuku- Kuku sumber kontaminiasi bakteri- Atasi dengan cuci dengan sabun dan air, atau antiseptik/sanitizer- Alkohol juga dapat digunakanPerhiasan- Harus dilepas: kontaminasi dan juga bahaya fisikDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIRambut- Sumber : Staphylococcus- Pekerja yang pegang rambut harus cuci tangan- Harus pakai tutup kepala yang memang menutupsemua bagian rambut/kepalaMata- Mata sebenarnya bebas dari bakteri, tapi infeksi dimata dapat terjadi, kontak dengan bulu mata- Pekerja yang memegang mata, mungkin terkontaminasiDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIMulutBakteri yang dapat dijumpai dimulut dan bibir banyakjenisnyaGosok gigi mencegah akumulasi dari bakteri danmengurangi kemungkinan kontaminasiKontaminasi melalui ludahHindarkan bersin dan batuk serta dilarang merokokDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIHidung- Sumber : Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Diptheria- Hindarkan bersin dan hindari tangan dari sentuhanhidungOrgan pembuangan- Sumber: S. fecalis, Salmonella, Shigella- Harus cuci dengan sabun dan hand-dip sanitizersebelum menangani panganDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIMakanan ( Bahan Mentah ) :- B.M. hasil pertanian : mikroba dari tanah,air, residu pestisida- B.M. hewani : hewan yg disembelih,unggas, antibiotika, hormonSusu- Sapi, alat pemerah- Kontaminasi silang: pekerja, wadah- Misal: L. monocytogenesDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIDagingPisau dan alat waktu penyembelihanBulu, kulit, saluran pencernaan dan pernafasanKontaminasi selama: penyembelihan, pemotongan,pengolahan, penyimpanan dan distribusiKarena karkas kontak dengan debu atau kotoran lainDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIUnggas- Selama pengolahan banyak terjadi kontaminasi olehSalmonella & Campylobacter- Terutama selama penyimpanan- Salmonella juga dapat berasal dari sarung tangan,pekerja atau alat lain yang digunakanHasil Laut- Banyak mengandung Vitamin B dan mineralyang diperlukan oleh mikroba- Kontaminasi dan pertumbuhan mikroba bilasuhu tidak sesuaiDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIRempah-rempah- Tergantung dari cara panen, jenis rempah,penanganan dan pengolahan- Banyak rempah-rempah yang dipanen dalam tanah:seperti rimpang, sehingga tanah perlu dibersihkandengan seksama agar tidak menjadi sumberkontaminanDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RILingkungan :1. Udara medium sementara virus & bakteri influenza2. Tanah C. botulinum & C. perfringens3. Air limbah Salmonella, Shigella, Streptococci fekal, PseudomonasSumber Lainnya:- Peralatan : selama digunakan atau disimpan- Kontaminasi peralatan dari bahan, pekerja dan udara- Atasi dengan: desain yang higienis dan pembersihan yang efektifDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIUdara dan Air⇒ Air sebagai medium pembersih⇒ Perlu pengamanan khusus, misal ultra violet⇒ Udara mencemari ditempat pengolahan,pengemasan, penyimpanan dan persiapan⇒ Atasi dengan praktek sanitasi yang baik, menyaringudara yang masuk ruang pengolahanDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RILimbah- Penanganan limbah yang buruk: sumber kontaminasi- Dapat mencemari sumber air, sungai, danau, lautsehingga pangan yang berasal dari perairan tersebutdapat tercemar- Atasi dengan pengaturan/penanganan limbah yangbaikDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIFomites :Contoh : handel pintu yg terkontaminasi tanganpekerja, permukaan alat pengolahan ygterkontaminasi mikroba, dapat mencemari produkyang diolah.Direktorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RISerangga dan TikusLalat, kecoa sumber pencemarAtasi dengan :Jangan sampai masuk areal pengolahan,persiapan dan penyimpananPenangkal serangga dan tikusDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RI• Air- pelarut yang sangat baik- mengandung berbagai unsur kimia seperti zatbesi, zat kapur, garam-garam mineral- bisa juga mengandung kuman ( bakteri, kamir,kapang ) dan zat racunDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RI* Air yang kontak langsung dg produk pangan harusmemenuhi syarat air minum•Air untuk keperluan khusus memenuhi syarat khususseperti : kadar besi (Fe), Sulfur (S), dan kesadahan* Air utk industri minuman ringan faktor pH dankesadahan sangat pentingDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RITahap - tahap penanganan dan pengolahan air :PENYARINGAN DAN SEDIMENTASI* Tujuanmenghilangkan benda-benda tersuspensiyg bersifat koloidal* Tahap - tahap penghilangan :- memisahkan padatan besar dengan saringan / filter( pasir atau karbon aktif)- menggumpalkan partikel yang terlewatkan denganbahan koagulan ( Al2(SO4)3, FeSO4, FeCl3 ), dllDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIDISINFEKSI ( KLORINASI ) AIR* Untuk pembersihan dan sanitasi peralatan pengolahan dansarana lain* Tujuanmenginaktifkan mikroba (bakteri & virus patogen )yg ditularkan melalui air* Disinfeksimenggunakan klorindisebut juga klorinasi* Proses klorinasidengan penambahan klorin dg dosistertentu ( 0,2 - 0,5 ppm )Direktorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIPEMBERSIHAN DAN SANITASI PERALATANTahap - tahap pembersihan meliputi :• penghilangan kotoran yg besar• penggunaan senyawa pembersih untuk menghilangkan kotoran ygterlihat• pembilasan kotoran dan senyawa pembersih• penggunaan sanitizer utk membunuh, menghilangkan /menghambat mikroba yg tersisa•pembilasan untuk membersihkan sisa - sisa sanitizerDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RI* PEMBERSIHAN PERALATAN :- Pembersihan : penghilangan kotoran- Komponen yang dibutuhkan untuk pembersihan : air,deterjen, surfaktan, sekustran dan bahan penggosok- Sifat pembersih yang baik : dapat memisahkan kotorandari permukaan, mendispersikan kotoran dalam deterjen,mencegah redeposisi, tidak korosif, dan ekonomisDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RISANITASI PERALATAN :- Tujuanmembunuh mikroba vegetatif yang tinggal dipermukaan alat- Proses sanitasi yang efektifpembersihan alatbahan sanitaiserDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIJenis- jenis sanitaiser :a. Panas : baik untuk industri pangandapat menembus celah kecil, tidak korosif,tidak selektif terhadap mikroba tertentutidak meninggalkan residu.Suhu yg baik > 82oC- Pemanasanpemanasan basah ( uap dan air panas ) danpemanasan kering- Sanitasi uap panas : 80oC selama 15 ‘ atau 94o selama 5 menit- Sanitasi air panas : suhu > 80o CDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIb. Iradiasi ultraviolet, panjang gelombang 254 nmuntuk ruangpengemas dan airc. Ozon (O3 ) untuk sanitasi udara . Penggunaan harus hati-hati ,terutama lemak dapat teroksidasi sehingga tengikd. Bahan kimia : klorin, iodine, senyawa amonium kuartener(quats)Direktorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIPEMBERSIHAN DAN SANITASI ALAT-ALAT KECILDilakukan secara manual dengan tangan pekerjaKonsentrasi larutan pembersih tidak mengiritasi tangan dan kulitpekerjaPerendaman alat dalam larutan pembersih pada suhu 52oCselama 12 - 30 menitPemberian gelombang ultrasonik atau penyikatanDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIPEMBERSIHAN TANGAN PEKERJAPencucian tangan penting untuk mencegah penyebaran mikrobaCuci dan sikat tangan dalam air dengan larutan pembersih yangbersabunBilas tangan dengan air hangatRendam atau semprot tangan dengan sanitaiser :iodine 25 ppm, klorin 50-100 ppm, quats 200ppmAlternatif lain, pencucian satu kali dalam larutan yang sekaligusmengandung deterjen dan sanitaiserDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIProsedur cuci tangan yang baik1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.Basahi tanganPakai sabunGosok dengan telitiSikat dengan sikatCuci/bilasPakai sabun lagiCuci dengan airKeringkan dengan penyeka keringDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIHIGIENE PEKERJA1. MASALAH KESEHATAN :- Setiap pekerja yang terjangkit sakit menular tidakdiperkenankan masuk kerja.- Pekerja melakukan pemeriksaan kesehatan umumsetiap 6 bulan sekali.- Pekerja yang menderita luka terbuka, terbakar dan infeksi bakterilainnya tidak diperkenankan bekerja di ruang pengolahan.- Pekerja wajib mencuci tangan dengan air bersih setelah dari kamarmandi / WC- Pekerja dilarang meludah di lingkungan pengolahan pangan.Direktorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIHIGIENE PEKERJA2. KEBERSIHAN TANGAN :Setiap pekerja harus mencuci tangan sebelum mulai bekerjaPekerja yg menderita luka di tangan tapi bukan infeksi bolehbekerja tetapi harus pakai sarung tangan karet dan tidak memakaicat kuku.Tangan harus selalu dicuci kembali setiap kali selesai melakukan/memegang sesuatu yang tidak saniterPekerja diharuskan menggunakan penutup mulut ketika sedangbekerja tiba-tiba batuk / bersin dan tangan harus dicuci kembalisetelah digunakan untuk menutup mulut.Pekerja harus menjaga kebersihan tangannya dengan tidakmenggunakannya untuk membersihkan mulut, hidung atau anggotabadan lainnya ketika sedang bekerja.Direktorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIHIGIENE PEKERJA3. PERLENGKAPAN PEKERJA :• Setiap pekerja harus mengenakan pakaian yang bersih & sopanputih / terang.• Pekerja di pabrik pengolahan pangan tidak diperkenankanmengenakan jam tangan, kalung, anting, cincin, dll benda kecil yangmudah putus / hilang.• Pekerja hendaknya menggunakan pakaian dengan ukuran yang pas /tidak terlalu besar.• Jika disediakan pakaian seragam, hendaknya pakaian tersebut tidakmempunyai saku.• Selama bekerja di bagian pengolahan pangan tidak diperkenankanmenggunakan kaus singlet.• Pekerja hendaknya selalu menggunakan topi, jaring atau penutuprambut lainnya.• Pekerja tidak diperkenankan berkuku panjang.Direktorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RISARAN:1. Ikutkan pelatihan untuk penanganan pangan yangaman dan higiene personalia2. Dilakukan inspeksi dan penindakan bila aturan yangada tidak dipatuhi3. Diberikan insentif bagi pekerja yang selalu bertindakhigienisDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RIINFORMASI LEBIH LANJUT ?Silakan hubungi:Direktorat Surveilan dan PenyuluhanKeamanan Pangan,Badan Pengawas Obat dan Makanan R.I.Jalan Percetakan Negara 23, Jakarta 10560Telp : 021 42878701, 42803516, 428 75738, 425 9624Fax : 021 42878701.email : surveilanpangan@pom.go.idBalai Besar/Balai POM di seluruh IndonesiaDirektorat Surveilan dan Penyuluhan Keamanan PanganDeputi III, Badan POM RI

Broiler Performances Fed Diet Contained Jatropha curcas L. Meal Fermented with Rhizopus oligosporus

2011-12-14T04:40:00.001-08:00

Versi online:http://medpet.journal.ipb.ac.id/DOI: 10.5398/medpet.2011.34.2.117Media Peternakan, Agustus 2011, hlm. 117-125EISSN 2087-4634Terakreditasi B SK Dikti No: 43/DIKTI/Kep/2008Performa Ayam Broiler yang Diberi Ransum Mengandung Bungkil Biji Jarak Pagar(Jatropha curcas L.) Hasil Fermentasi Menggunakan Rhizopus oligosporusSumiatia, *, Farhanuddina, W. Hermanaa, A. Sudarmana, N. Istichomaha, & A. SetiyonobDepartemen Ilmu Nutrisi dan Teknologi Pakan, Fakultas Peternakan Institut Pertanian BogorbFakultas Kedokteran Hewan, Institut Pertanian BogorJln. Agatis Kampus IPB Darmaga, Bogor 16680(Diterima 26-04-2011; disetujui 13-06-2011)aABSTRAKBungkil biji jarak pagar (BBJP) mengandung protein tinggi (58%-60%), namun ketersediaanprotein tersebut sangat rendah, disebabkan beberapa zat antinutrisi yang terkandung dalam BBJP,diantaranya curcin dan phorbolesther. Zat antinutrisi tersebut mengganggu metabolisme dan sintesisprotein dalam tubuh. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengevaluasi pengaruh pemberian BBJPhasil fermentasi menggunakan Rhizopus oligosporus pada ayam broiler. Penelitian menggunakananak ayam umur satu hari (d.o.c) strain Ross sebanyak 96 ekor (bobot badan awal rata-rata 45,6±1,7g/ekor) dan dipelihara selama 5 minggu. Perlakuan ransum yang diberikan adalah: R0 (ransum tanpaBBJP), R1 (ransum mengandung 3% BBJP fermentasi), R2 (ransum mengandung 6% BBJP fermen-tasi) dan R3 (ransum mengandung 9% BBJP fermentasi). Data dianalisis menggunakan sidik ragam(ANOVA). Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pemberian BBJP fermentasi sebanyak 3%–9%dalam ransum ayam broiler periode starter dan grower-finisher sangat nyata menurunkan (P<0,01)konsumsi ransum, bobot badan akhir, dan pertambahan bobot badan. Pemberian BBJP fermentasisebanyak 9% sangat nyata meningkatkan (P<0,01) angka mortalitas ayam broiler pada periode startermaupun grower-finisher. Fermentasi BBJP menggunakan R. oligosporus belum efektif dalam menu-runkan antinutrisi yang tercermin dari tidak adanya perbaikan performa ayam broiler.Kata kunci: ayam broiler, bungkil biji jarak pagar, Rhizopus oligosporusABSTRACTJatropha curcas meal (JCM) contains high crude protein (58%-60%), but it can not be usedproperly because of anti-nutritional contents known as curcin and phorbolesther. These componentsinterferes protein metabolism and body protein synthesis. This study was conducted to evaluate theeffect of feeding fermented JCM using Rhizopus oligosporus on broilers’ performances. Ninety sixof day old chicks of Ross strain broiler (initial body weight 45.6±1.7 g) were used and reared for fiveweeks. The treatments were: R0 (diet without JCM), R1 (diet contained 3% fermented JCM), R2 (dietcontained 6% fermented JCM) and R3 (diet contained 9% fermented JCM). A completely randomizedesign with 4 treatments and 4 replications was assigned in this experiment. The data were analyzedusing analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results indicated that feeding fermented JCM at the level of3% to 9% in starter and grower-finisher broilers highly significant reduced (P<0.01) feed consumption,body weight and body weight gain. Feeding JCM at the level of 9% (R3) highly significant increased(P<0.01) the mortality rate of starter as well as grower-finisher period broilers. Fermentation of JCMusing R. oligosporus indicated no effective detoxification process in relation to the improvement ofbroiler performances.Key words: broilers, Jatropha curcas L meal, Rhizopus oligosporus* Korespondensi:e-mail: y_sumiati@yahoo.comEdisi Agustus 2011117SUMIATI ET AL.Media PeternakanPENDAHULUANBungkil biji jarak pagar (Jatropha curcas L.) meru-pakan hasil samping pengolahan biji jarak menjadi mi-nyak jarak. Potensi bungkil biji jarak pagar di Indonesiasaat ini sangat besar. Menurut Departemen Pertanian(2008), produktivitas tanaman jarak berkisar 3,5-4,5 kgbiji/pohon/tahun ketika ditanam di atas tanah seluaslebih kurang 37541,5 ha. Produksi akan stabil setelahtanaman berumur lebih dari satu tahun dan bila dipe-lihara dengan baik, tanaman pagar dapat berumur 20tahun.Menurut Akintayo (2004), bungkil biji jarak me-ngandung protein kasar 24,6%; lemak kasar 47,25%;serat kasar 10,12%; air 5,54%; abu 4,5%; dan karbohidrat7,9%. Martinez-Herrera et al. (2006) menyatakan bahwabungkil biji jarak mengandung protein tinggi (31%-35%)dengan komposisi asam amino dalam keseimbanganyang baik menurut pola FAO/WHO, kecuali lisin.Kandungan asam amino (kecuali lisin) pada bungkilbiji jarak lebih tinggi dibandingkan pada bungkilkedelai (Makkar & Becker, 2009). Menurut Abu-Arab& Abu-Salem (2010), bungkil biji jarak juga kaya akanmineral makro maupun mikro. Bungkil biji jarak pagarmengandung Ca 34,21 mg/kg; P 185,17 mg/kg; Mn 28,37mg/kg; dan Zn 47,13 mg/kg. Kandungan nutrien yangtinggi dalam bungkil biji jarak pagar tersebut tidak bisadimanfaatkan secara optimal oleh ternak unggas, karenaadanya kandungan racun, seperti curcin/lectin dan phor-bol ester yang berbahaya (Makkar et al., 2008). Phorbolester menyebabkan berbagai efek fisiologis dalam selpada berbagai jaringan (Silinsky & Searl, 2003). MenurutHaas et al. (2002), phorbol ester adalah diterpenes yangmempunyai struktur kerangka tigliane, dan pada J.curcas terkandung 6 phorbol ester. Racun tersebut di atas,terutama phorbol ester menyebabkan bungkil biji jaraksangat beracun jika diberikan pada ternak kalau tidakdiolah terlebih dahulu. Aregheore et al. (2003) melapor-kan bahwa terjadi tingkat kematian yang tinggi danperubahan patologi yang parah pada ayam Hisex Brownyang diberi ransum mengandung 0,5% biji J. curcas.Menurut Lin et al. (2003), curcin mempunyai kekua-tan menghambat sintesis protein dalam tubuh. Curcindalam bungkil biji jarak pagar bersifat tidak stabildengan panas, sehingga racun tersebut dapat dihilang-kan dengan perlakuan pemanasan. Sementara, phorbolester tidak dapat rusak dengan perlakuan pemanasanbahkan dengan suhu pemanggangan (roasting) sekitar160 oC selama 30 menit karena racun ini bersifat stabil(Martinez-Herrera et al., 2006). Racun dalam bungkiltersebut dapat dikurangi dengan perlakuan kimiawi(Aregheore et al., 2003). Belewu & Sam (2010) melapor-kan bahwa fermentasi bungkil biji jarak menggunakanRhizopus oligosporus dapat menurunkan berbagai antinutrisi, yaitu inhibitor tripsin, curcin, saponin, asam fitatdan phorbolester. Menurut Han et al. (2003), R. oligospo-rus menghasilkan enzim protease, lipase, α-amylase,glutaminase, dan α-galactosidase. Adanya enzim-enzimtersebut diharapkan dapat menurunkan antinutrisi danracun yang terkandung dalam bungkil biji jarak pagardan sekaligus meningkatkan nilai nutrisinya.118Edisi Agustus 2011Oleh karena itu, salah satu upaya yang dilakukanuntuk detoksifikasi racun dalam bungkil biji jarak pagarpada penelitian ini adalah secara biologis dengan fer-mentasi menggunakan R. oligosphorus. Tujuan penelitianini adalah untuk mempelajari pengaruh pemberianbungkil biji jarak yang difermentasi menggunakan R.oligosphorus terhadap performa ayam broiler.MATERI DAN METODETernak dan PeralatanPenelitian menggunakan 96 ekor ayam broiler umursatu hari (day old chick) strain Ross yang dipelihara se-lama 35 hari. Peralatan yang digunakan adalah kandangsistem litter yang terbagi menjadi 16 petak yang terbuatdari bambu dengan ukuran 1 x 1 x 1 m, dilengkapipemanas (brooder), tempat pakan dan air minum, danlampu pijar 60 watt.Ransum dan PerlakuanRansum perlakuan terdiri atas:R0 : Ransum tanpa bungkil biji jarak pagarR1 : Ransum mengandung 3% bungkil biji jarak pagarterfermentasiR2 : Ransum mengandung 6% bungkil biji jarak pagarterfermentasiR3 : Ransum mengandung 9% bungkil biji jarak pagarterfermentasi.Ransum penelitian dibagi menjadi dua menurutperiode umur ayam, yaitu broiler starter (0-2 minggu)dan grower-finisher (2-5 minggu) dengan komposisi dankandungan nutrien masing-masing terdapat pada Tabel1 dan 2. Ransum disusun isokalori, isoprotein, sertaimbangan Ca : P yang sama (Leeson & Summers, 2005).Peubah Penelitian dan Rancangan PercobaanPeubah yang diamati adalah konsumsi ransum (g/ekor), bobot badan (g/ekor), pertambahan bobot badan(PBB) (g/ekor), konversi ransum (PBB/konsumsi ran-sum), dan mortalitas (%). Penelitian menggunakan ran-cangan acak lengkap (RAL) yang terdiri atas 4 perlakuandan 4 ulangan dengan 6 ekor ayam setiap ulangan. Datadianalisis dengan sidik ragam (ANOVA), bila terdapatpengaruh nyata dilanjutkan dengan uji jarak Duncan(Steel & Torrie, 1995).Prosedur Fermentasi Bungkil Biji Jarak Pagar Fermentasi bungkil biji jarak dilakukan denganmengikuti metode Rotib (1990) yang dimodifikasi.Persiapan inokulan. Pembuatan media PDA (potatodextro agar) miring diawali dengan mencampur PDAsebanyak 4 g ditambah akuades steril 100 ml, dilarutkansampai homogen, kemudian dipanaskan hingga larutanberwarna bening kemerahan. Larutan tersebut selan-jutnya dituang sebanyak 3 ml ke dalam tabung reaksi,kemudian dimasukkan ke dalam autoclave pada suhuVol. 34 No. 2PERFORMA AYAM BROILERTabel 1. Susunan dan kandungan nutrien ransum ayam broiler periode starter (umur 0-2 minggu)Perlakuan (%)R0 R1 R2 R3Jagung kuning 52,2 54,4 52,7 50,5Dedak padi 10,0 5,0 5,0 5,0Bungkil kedelai 23,0 22,8 21,5 20,7Komposisi bahan (%)Bungkil biji jarak0,0 3,0 6,0 9,010,0 10,0 10,0 10,0Minyak 2,5 2,5 2,5 2,5DCP 0,8 0,8 0,8 0,8CaCO3 0,9 0,9 0,9 0,9DL-Metionina 0,1 0,1 0,1 0,1Premix 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5Tepung ikanJumlah100 100 100 1003.056 3.066 3.069 3.068Kandungan nutrien ransumberdasarkan perhitungan:Energi metabolis (kkal/kg)Protein kasar (%)21,3 21,4 21,4 21,5Serat kasar (%) 4,0 4,7 5,9 7,1Kalsium (%) 1,1 1,1 1,1 1,1Fosfor tersedia (%) 0,6 0,6 0,6 0,6Metionina (%) 0,5 0,5 0,5 0,5Lisina (%) 1,3 1,2 1,2 1,2Keterangan: R0= ransum tanpa bungkil biji jarak pagar; R1= ransum mengandung 3% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi; R2= ransum mengan-dung 6% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi; R3= ransum mengandung 9% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi.121 oC selama 15 menit, dan didinginkan dalam keadaanmiring. R. oligosphorus sebagai inokulan ditumbuhkanpada PDA miring dalam tabung reaksi dan diinkubasipada suhu kamar selama 3 x 24 jam sampai terjadi per-tumbuhan miselia.Inokulasi pada dedak padi dan ampas tahu. Sebelumdiinokulasi, ke dalam dedak padi dan ampas tahu di-tambahkan larutan mineral (0,5% NH4NO3, 0.5% KCl,0,05% MgSO4.7H2O, 0,01% FeSO4.7H2O, 0,0001% CuSO4.5H2O), kemudian dimasukkan ke dalam autoclave(pemanasan pada suhu 121 °C selama 15 menit). Jumlahlarutan mineral yang ditambahkan adalah sebanyak 100ml untuk setiap 100 g bahan (50 g dedak padi dan 50 gampas tahu), kemudian dibuat dalam bentuk larutansuspensi. Inokulasi tersebut dilakukan dengan men-campurkan larutan inokulan ke dalam 100 g substrat.Setelah itu diinkubasikan selama 3 x 24 jam pada suhukamar, kemudian dilakukan pengamatan pertumbuhanjamur. Substrat selanjutnya dikeringkan dalam ovendengan suhu 60 °C, kemudian digiling dan siap digu-nakan sebagai starter fermentasi bungkil biji jarak pagar.Fermentasi bungkil biji jarak pagar. Bungkil biji jarakpagar dipanaskan dalam autoclave selama 30 menit de-ngan suhu 121 °C, kemudian didinginkan. Selanjutnyaditambahkan akuades steril sebanyak 60% dari ba-nyaknya bungkil biji jarak dan diaduk hingga homogen.Inokulasi dilakukan dengan menambahkan substratsebanyak 0,6%, setelah itu diinkubasi selama 3 x 24 jampada suhu kamar. Fermentasi ini dihentikan dengancara bungkil biji jarak fermentasi dikeringkan dalamoven dengan suhu 60 °C, kemudian digiling dan siapdigunakan sebagai bahan ransum.HASIL DAN PEMBAHASANKonsumsi Ransum, Bobot Badan, Pertambahan BobotBadan, dan Konversi Ransum Pemberian ransum mengandung bungkil biji jarakpagar hasil fermentasi sebanyak 3% (R1), 6% (R2) dan9% (R3) sangat nyata (P<0,01) menurunkan konsumsiransum, bobot badan, PBB, dan efisiensi penggunaanransum ayam broiler, baik pada periode starter (umur0-2 minggu), periode grower-finisher (umur 2-5 minggu),maupun secara kumulatif (Tabel 3 dan 4). Semakintinggi penggunaan bungkil biji jarak pagar dalam ran-sum, performa ayam semakin menurun.Apabila dibandingkan dengan ayam yang diberiransum kontrol (tanpa pemberian bungkil biji jarakpagar), penurunan konsumsi ransum selama pemeli-haraan masing-masing sebesar 37,78% (R1); 63,57% (R2);dan 77,01% (R3) (Gambar 1). Penurunan bobot badanEdisi Agustus 2011119SUMIATI ET AL.Media PeternakanTabel 2. Susunan dan kandungan nutrien ransum ayam broiler periode grower-finisher (umur 2-5 minggu)Perlakuan (%)R0 R1 R2 R3Jagung kuning 57,0 56,5 54,4 52,5Dedak padi 10,0 8,5 8,5 8,5Bungkil kedelai 19,8 18,8 17,9 16,9Bungkil biji jarak 0,0 3,0 6,0 9,0Tepung ikan 8,0 8,0 8,0 8,0Minyak 2,4 2,4 2,4 2,4DCP 1,2 1,2 1,2 1,2CaCO3 0,9 0,9 0,9 0,9DL-Metionina 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,2Komposisi bahan (%)Premix0,5Jumlah0,50,50,5100 100 100 1003.081 3.087 3.087 3.088Kandungan nutrien ransumberdasarkan perhitungan:Energi metabolis (kkal/kg)Protein kasar (%)19,25 19,21 19,27 19,30Serat kasar (%) 3,84 4,87 6,05 7,22Kalsium (%) 1,29 1,11 1,12 1,13Fosfor tersedia (%) 0,58 0,58 0,58 0,59Metionina (%) 0,55 0,53 0,53 0,52Lisina (%) 1,10 1,06 1,03 1,00Keterangan: R0= ransum tanpa bungkil biji jarak pagar; R1= ransum mengandung 3% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi; R2= ransum mengan-dung 6% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi; R3= ransum mengandung 9% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi.Tabel 3. Performa ayam broiler periode starter (umur 0-2 minggu)PeubahPerlakuanR0R1R2R3Konsumsi pakan (g) 451,10±16,40A 330,30±44,10B 249,20±28,90C 154,40±17,10DBobot badan (g/ekor) 354,70±12,90 246,20±13,40 163,80±16,20 C 115,70±18,20DPertambahan bobot badan (g) 307,40±12,90A 199,70±12,70B 120,50±15,40C 70,50±17,80DB ABKonversi pakan 1,47± 0,11 1,64± 0,11 2,07± 0,08 2,24± 0,35BMortalitas (%) 0,00± 0,00A 0,00± 0,00A 4,16± 2,08A 33,33± 5,55BAAKeterangan: Superskrip berbeda pada baris yang sama menunjukkan berbeda sangat nyata (P<0,01). R0= Ransum tanpa bungkil biji jarak pagar; R1=Ransum mengandung 3% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi; R2= Ransum mengandung 6% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi;R3= Ransum mengandung 9% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi.Tabel 4. Performa ayam broiler periode grower-finisher (umur 2-5 minggu)PeubahPerlakuanR0R1R2Konsumsi pakan (g) 2.188,80±290,60 1.312,30±201,20Bobot badan (g/ekor) 1.426,10±176,80 Pertambahan bobot badan (g) 1.071,50±166,30A AAR3712,70±167,10 380,60±60,60C861,30± 96,10 445,30±55,10 C 297,30±24,40C615,20± 93,40B 281,50±39,00C 181,70±33,70CBBCKonversi pakan 2,05± 0,06 2,14± 0,14 2,52±0,36 2,13±0,44Mortalitas (%) 0,00± 0,00 4,16± 2,08 29,16±5,24 50,00±5,55BAABKeterangan: Superskrip berbeda pada baris yang sama menunjukkan berbeda sangat nyata (P<0,01). R0= Ransum tanpa bungkil biji jarak pagar; R1=Ransum mengandung 3% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi; R2= Ransum mengandung 6% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi;R3= Ransum mengandung 9% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi.120Edisi Agustus 2011Vol. 34 No. 2PERFORMA AYAM BROILERayam broiler pada perlakuan pemberian bungkil bijijarak pagar, yaitu 39,60% (R1); 68,77% (R2); dan 79,15%(R3) dibandingkan dengan pemberian ransum kontrol(R0) (Gambar 2). Penurunan PBB masing-masing sebesar40,91% (R1); 70,92% (R2); dan 81,71% (R3) dibandingkandengan kontrol (R0) (Gambar 3). Pertambahan bobotbadan ayam broiler yang diberi ransum selama 5 ming-gu yang dihasilkan pada penelitian ini lebih tinggidibandingkan dengan hasil Setiaji & Sudarman (2005),yaitu 1380,5 g/ekor dibandingkan dengan 1244 g/ekor.Efisiensi penggunaan pakan yang dicerminkanoleh angka konversi ransum selama 5 minggu penelitiansemakin menurun dengan pemberian bungkil biji jarakpagar dalam ransum (Gambar 4). Penurunan efisiensipenggunaan pakan terutama terjadi pada ayam broilerperiode starter (Tabel 3). Pemberian bungkil biji jarakpagar pada periode grower-finisher tidak nyata mem-pengaruhi angka konversi ransum, namun demikianbobot badan akhir ayam broiler yang dihasilkan jauhlebih rendah dibandingkan dengan kontrol, sehinggabungkil biji jarak pagar dalam penelitian ini belum bisadigunakan sebagai pakan ayam broiler. Angka konversiyang tidak berbeda nyata dengan kontrol ini dikarena-kan ayam broiler yang diberi bungkil biji jarak pagarmengkonsumsi ransum sedikit dan menghasilkan PBByang rendah.Penurunan performa ayam broiler ini disebabkanmasih tingginya kadar racun, terutama phorbol ester,dalam ransum. Hal ini tercermin masih tingginya ka-dar lemak kasar dalam bungkil biji jarak pagar yangdifermentasi, yaitu 16,96%. Fermentasi menggunakanR. oligosporus hanya mampu menurunkan lemak 3,66%,2500Bobot badan akhir (g/ekor)30002000150010005000R0 R1 R2 R3PerlakuanPerlakuanGambar 2. Grafik bobot badan akhir. R0= Ransum tanpa bung-kil biji jarak pagar; R= Ransum mengandung 3%bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi; R2= Ransummengandung 6% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermen-tasi; R3= Ransum mengandung 9% bungkil biji jarakpagar terfermentasi. Superskrip berbeda menunjuk-kan berbeda sangat nyata (P<0,01)Gambar 1. Konsumsi ransum total selama pemeliharaan. R0=Ransum tanpa bungkil biji jarak pagar; R= Ransummengandung 3% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermen-tasi; R2= Ransum mengandung 6% bungkil biji jarakpagar terfermentasi; R3= Ransum mengandung 9%bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi. Superskripberbeda menunjukkan berbeda sangat nyata(P<0,01).PerlakuanGambar 3. Pertambahan bobot badan selama pemeliharaan.R0= Ransum tanpa bungkil biji jarak pagar; R1=Ransum mengandung 3% bungkil biji jarak pagarterfermentasi; R2= Ransum mengandung 6% bung-kil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi; R3= Ransum men-gandung 9% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi.Superskrip berbeda menunjukkan berbeda sangatnyata (P<0,01).PerlakuanGambar 4. Grafik konversi ransum ayam broiler selamapemeliharaan. R0= Ransum tanpa bungkil biji jarakpagar; R1= Ransum mengandung 3% bungkil bijijarak pagar terfermentasi; R2= Ransum mengan-dung 6% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi;R3= Ransum mengandung 9% bungkil biji jarakpagar terfermentasi.Edisi Agustus 2011121SUMIATI ET AL.Media Peternakanyaitu dari kadar lemak 20,62% menjadi 16,96% (Tabel 5).Racun phorbol ester terdapat dalam lemak bungkil bijijarak. Menurut Ahmed & Salimon (2009), kandunganphorbol ester minyak biji jarak pagar yang berasal dariIndonesia adalah 1,58%. Mengacu pada penelitian terse-but, maka kandungan phorbol ester dalam ransum pene-litian adalah: 0 (R0); 0,08 (R1); 0,16 (R2); dan 0,24 mg/gransum (R3). Menurut hasil penelitian Aregheore et al.(2003), taraf toleransi phorbol ester pada ransum tikusadalah 0,09 mg/g ransum. Sampai saat ini belum adahasil penelitian berapa taraf toleransi phorbol ester dalamransum ayam broiler. Kandungan phorbol ester dalamransum perlakuan R2 dan R3 melebihi taraf toleransimenurut Aregheore et al. (2003), sedangkan kandunganphorbol ester pada ransum R1 lebih rendah daripada taraftoleransi tersebut. Walaupun kandungan phorbol esterpada perlakuan R1 relatif lebih rendah, tetapi sudahdapat menurunkan performa ayam broiler.Phorbol ester, bahkan dalam konsentrasi sangatrendah, menyebabkan kejadian toksik pada ternak yangmengkonsumsi pakan yang mengandung phorbol ester.Phorbol ester bertanggung jawab terhadap iritasi kulitdan pemacu tumor dengan cara menstimulasi protein ki-nase C yang terlibat dalam transduksi sinyal dan prosesperkembangan dari sebagian besar sel-sel dan jaringan,sehingga menyebabkan berbagai pengaruh biologis padaberbagai organisme. Phorbol ester dapat melepaskan pro-tease, sitokin, dan mengaktivasi NADPH oksidase yangberakibat rusaknya jaringan sehingga menimbulkan rasasakit (Goel et al., 2007). Hal ini diduga menyebabkanmenurunnya selera makan, sehingga konsumsi ransummenurun. Penelitian Rakshit et al. (2008) membuktikanbahwa phorbol ester menyebabkan penurunan konsumsiransum dan pertumbuhan tikus.Curcin sangat beracun bagi manusia dan ternakkarena dapat menghambat sintesis protein di dalamreticulocyte (Lin et al., 2003). Curcin juga dapat meng-gumpalkan sel darah merah pada semua spesies hewandan semua tipe darah. Sifat curcin seperti di atas meng-hasilkan pertumbuhan ayam broiler pada penelitian iniTabel 5. Komposisi kimia bungkil biji jarak pagar (Jatrophacurcas L.) sebelum dan setelah fermentasiTanpa Fermentasiperlakuan Bahan kering (%) 88,82 95,24Protein kasar (%) 18,40 19,78Serat kasar (%) 32,81 31,81Lemak kasar (%) 20,62 16,96KomponenBeta-N (%)4,36 21,6012,63 5,09Ca (%) 0,56 0,49P (%) 0,67 0,76Curcin (%) 0,09 0,07Abu (%)Keterangan: Hasil analisis Laboratorium Ilmu dan TeknologiPakan, Fakultas Peternakan IPB (2006); *Hasil analisisLaboratorium Balai Besar Pasca Panen, BALITBANGPertanian, Bogor (2006).122Edisi Agustus 2011terhambat, karena kandungan curcin dalam bungkil bijijarak yang digunakan masih tinggi.Selain itu penurunan konsumsi ransum jugadisebabkan kerusakan organ hati untuk mendetosifi-kasi racun, hal ini sebagai mekanisme pertahanan diriterhadap racun. Penyebab lain adalah pendarahan padapembuluh darah usus akibat adanya akumulasi racuncurcin dan phorbol ester yang semakin tinggi sejalandengan peningkatan konsumsi ransum. Racun tersebutmemodifikasi sel-sel usus sehingga sel-sel usus menjadirusak. Hal ini menyebabkan fungsi usus sebagai organpenyerapan menurun. Hasil penelitian Kumar et al.(2010) menyatakan bahwa phorbol ester menyebabkanlesio parah pada usus halus ikan gurame bagian ante-rior dan posterior. Li et al. (2010) menunjukkan bahwaphorbol ester sebesar 32,40 mg/kg bobot badan sangattoksik pada mencit dan menyebabkan pendarahanhebat pada paru-paru serta glomerular sclerosis dan at-rophy pada ginjal. Hasil histopatologi pada penelitianini ditemukan adanya kerusakan hati dan ginjal beradapada skor 2 untuk pemberian bungkil biji jarak 3% (R1)yang ditandai dengan degenerasi berbutir, oedema danpendarahan. Pemberian bungkil biji jarak pagar 6%dan 9% menghasilkan kerusakan hati dan ginjal yangberada pada skor 2 dan 3, berupa degenerasi berbutir,degenerasi lemak dan pendarahan meluas (Gambar 5dan 6). Devappa et al. (2008) memberikan bungkil bijijarak pagar pada tikus dan hasilnya adalah menurunkanselera makan (appetite) dan konsumsi ransum disertaidiare serta penurunan aktivitas motorik.Menurunnya konsumsi ransum menyebabkanbobot badan dan PBB yang diperoleh semakin rendah,karena asupan nutrien (terutama energi dan protein)semakin sedikit. Bobot badan erat hubungannya de-ngan jumlah konsumsi ransum (Bell & Weaver, 2002).Menurunnya konsumsi ransum mengakibatkan rendah-nya PBB karena konsumsi nutrien berkurang (Leeson& Summers, 2005). Asupan energi ayam broiler selama5 minggu dalam penelitian ini adalah: 8122,3 kkal/ekor(R0); 5091,4 kkal/ekor (R1); 2964,9 kkal/ekor (R2); dan1649,2 kkal/ekor (R3). Asupan protein ayam broiler se-lama 5 minggu dalam penelitian ini adalah: 517,4 g/ekor(R0); 322,8 g/ekor (R1); 190,6 g/ekor (R2); dan 106,7g/ekor (R3). Asupan energi metabolis dan protein ayambroiler selama 5 minggu (umur 0-5 minggu) menurutLeeson & Summers (2005) berturut-turut adalah 9418,2kkal/ekor dan 633,36 g/ekor.Racun curcin dan phorbol ester dapat menyebab-kan penyerapan nutrien terganggu, sehingga terjadipenekanan pertumbuhan. Hal ini dibuktikan olehAnnongu et al. (2010), bahwa pemberian bungkil bijijarak yang telah didetoksifikasi pada tikus albinomeningkatkan efisiensi penggunaan ransum, sehinggaPBB meningkat. Hasil penelitian Martinez-Herrera etal. (2006) membuktikan bahwa kecernaan protein invitro dari bungkil biji jarak pagar yang telah didetoksi-fikasi meningkat. Hasil penelitian Chivandi et al. (2006)menyebutkan bahwa pemberian bungkil biji jarak padababi menurunkan metabolit dalam serum (packedcell volume, glukosa, kolesterol, trigliserida, aktivitasalfa-amilase). Hal ini disebabkan gangguan pencernaanVol. 34 No. 2PERFORMA AYAM BROILERSkor 0 (Perbesaran 10x) Skor 1 (Perbesaran 20x)Skor 1 (Perbesaran 10x)Skor 2 (Perbesaran 20x) Skor 3 (Perbesaran 40x)Skor 2 (Perbesaran 20x) Skor 3 (Perbesaran 40x)Gambar 6. Histopatologi organ ginjal ayam broiler penelitian,kongesti (K), dilatasi pada tubuli (D), pendarahan(P), oedema (O), degenerasi berbutir (B), degenerasilemak (L).(maldigestion) dan penyerapan (malabsorption) nutrien R3 (9% bungkil biji jarak pagar) melebihi batas toleransidalam ileum. menurut Aregheore et al. (2003), sehingga kemungkinan terjadi karsinogen lethal yang mengakibatkan kematian. Selain itu, kematian disebabkan racun curcin yang masih terkandung pada bungkil biji jarak pagar, walau- pun pada penelitian ini sudah dilakukan pemanasan (autoclave 121 °C, 30 menit) sebelum difermentasi. Pengolahan yang dilakukan dalam penelitian ini (fer-MortalitasMortalitas tertinggi terjadi pada ayam yang diberiransum perlakuan yang menggunakan bungkil biji jarakterfermentasi sebesar 9% (R3), yaitu sebanyak 83,33%dan menurun dengan semakin rendahnya penggunaanbungkil tersebut dalam ransum. Angka mortalitasberturut-turut adalah R2 (6%) sebesar 33,3%; R1 (3%)sebesar 4,16%; dan R0 sebesar 0% (Gambar 7). Hasil si-dik ragam menunjukkan bahwa pemberian bungkil bijijarak sebesar 6% (R2) dan 9% (R3) sangat nyata (P<0,01)meningkatkan angka mortalitas dibandingkan denganpemberian ransum kontrol (R0) dan R1 (3%). Kematiandisebabkan adanya phorbol ester (phorbol-12-myristate13-asetate), yaitu racun yang utama pada J. curcas.Phorbol ester diketahui dapat meniru aktivitas diasig-liserol (DAG) secara berlebihan, yaitu mengaktifkanprotein kinase C yang berperan dalam mengatur jalursignal transduksi dan aktivitas metabolik sel. Selain itu,interaksi phorbol ester dengan protein kinase C mem-pengaruhi aktivitas sebagian enzim, biosintesis protein,DNA (deoxyribo nucleic acid), polyamine, prosespembelahan sel, dan ekspresi gen (Goel et al., 2007).Phorbol secara berlebihan dapat mengaktifkan proteinkinase C dan perkembangan sel, kemudian memperkuatterjadinya karsinogen. Kandungan phorbol ester padaransum perlakuan R2 (6% bungkil biji jarak pagar) danGambar 5. Histopatologi organ hati ayam broiler penelitian, sel hepatosis tersusun radier terhadap vena sentralis (R), kongesti (K), pendarahan (P), oedema (O), de- generasi berbutir (B), degenerasi lemak (L). PerlakuanGambar 7. Grafik mortalitas ayam broiler selama pemeli-haraan. R0= Ransum tanpa bungkil biji jarak pagar;R1= Ransum mengandung 3% bungkil biji jarakpagar terfermentasi; R2= Ransum mengandung 6%bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi; R3= Ransummengandung 9% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfer-mentasi. Superskrip berbeda menunjukkan berbedasangat nyata (P<0,01).Edisi Agustus 2011123SUMIATI ET AL.Media PeternakanTabel 6. Rataan konsumsi curcin tiap minggu pemeliharaan(mg/ekor)*PerlakuanMinggu R0 R1 R2 1 0,0 2,3±0,4 4,6±0,6 4,7±0,2ke- 2 0,0 4,4±0,5 5,5±0,7 4,7±1,03 0,0 6,1±0,8 6,1±1,2 9,7±1,24 0,0 8,4±1,3 8,7±2,8 8,1±3,15 0,0 12,0±2,0 14,1±4,2 9,7±3,1Total 0,0A 33,3B 39,0B R336,9BKeterangan: *Konsumsi curcin= konsumsi ransum x kadar curcin dalamransum. Kadar curcin dalam ransum berdasarkan kadarcurcin dalam bungkil biji jarak (bbj); 0,09% (bbj kontrol);0,07% (bbj fermentasi); R0= Ransum tanpa bungkil bijijarak pagar; R1= Ransum mengandung 3% bungkil bijijarak pagar terfermentasi; R2= Ransum mengandung 6%bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi; R3= Ransum me-ngandung 9% bungkil biji jarak pagar terfermentasi.mentasi menggunakan R. oligosphorus) hanya mampumenurunkan kadar curcin sedikit, yaitu dari 0,09%menjadi 0,07%. Sebenarnya curcin bukan merupakanracun utama pada jarak pagar, tetapi efek toksik akanmeningkat jika bergabung dengan toksin lain sepertiphorbol ester. Berdasarkan Tabel 6, konsumsi curcin se-lama pemeliharaan (0-5 minggu) pada perlakuan R2(6%) lebih tinggi, walaupun tidak berbeda nyata diban-dingkan perlakuan lain yaitu R1 (3%) dan R3 (9%) dansangat nyata lebih tinggi (P<0,01) dibandingkan dengankontrol (R0).Fermentasi bungkil biji jarak pagar menggunakanR. oligosphorus belum mampu mengurangi atau meng-hilangkan racun phorbol ester sampai pada kadar amanuntuk ayam broiler, sehingga perlu dicari metode detok-sifikasi lain yang tepat. Wina et al. (2008) menyatakanbahwa perlu diupayakan teknologi detoksifikasi melaluiproses kombinasi fisik, kimiawi atau biologis yang mu-rah dan mudah diaplikasikan untuk mendetoksifikasibungkil biji jarak pagar.KESIMPULANPengolahan bungkil biji jarak pagar (J. curcas L)yang dilakukan secara biologis (fermentasi) menggu-nakan R. oligosphorus belum efektif untuk meminimal-kan kandungan anti nutrisi dan meningkatkan performaayam broiler.UCAPAN TERIMA KASIHTerima kasih peneliti ucapkan kepada Tim ProgramDUE-like Institut Pertanian Bogor Tahun Anggaran 2006yang telah membiayai penelitian ini.DAFTAR PUSTAKAAbu-Arab, A. A. & F. M. Abu Salem. 2010. Nutritional qual-ity of Jatropha curcas seeds and effect of some physicaland chemical treatments on their anti-nutritional factors.African J. Food Sci. 43: 93-103.124Edisi Agustus 2011Ahmed, W. A. & J. Salimon. 2009. Phorbol ester as toxic con-stituents of tropical Jatropha curcas seed oil. European J.Sci Res. 31: 429-436.Akintayo, E. T. 2004. Characteristics and composition of Parkiabiglobbosa and Jatropha curcas oil and cakes. BioresourceTechnol. 92:307-310Annongu, A. A., J. K. Joseph, D. F. Apata, A. O. Adeyina,M. B. Yousuf, & K. B. Ogunjimi. 2010. Detoxification ofJatropha curcas seeds for use in nutrition of monogastriclivestock as alternative feedstuff. Pak. J. Nutr. 9: 902-904.Aregheore, E. M., K. Becker, & H. P. S. Makkar.2003.Detoxification of a toxic variety of Jatropha curcas usingheat and chemical treament, and preliminary nutritionalevaluation with rats. S. Pac. J. Nat. Sci. 21:50-56.Belewu, M. A. & R. Sam. 2010. Solid state fermentation ofJatropha curcas kernel cake: Proximate composition andantinutritional components. J. Yeast Fungal Res. 1: 44-46.Bell, D. & W. D. Weaver. 2002. Commercial ChickenProduction Meat and Egg Production. 5th Ed. SpringerScience and Business Media, USA.Chivandi, E., K. H. Erlwanger, S. M. Makuza, J. S. Read, & J.P. Mtimuni. 2006. Effect of dietary jatropha curcas mealon percent packed cell volume, serum glucose, cholesteroland triglyceride concentration and alpha-amylase activityof weaning pig. Research. J. Anim. Vet. Sci. 1: 18-24.Departemen Pertanian. 2008. Kajian Sistem Usahatani JarakPagar di Lahan Kering Dataran Rendah di SulawesiTengah (APBN). BPTP Sulawesi Tengah. http://sulteng.lit-bang.deptan.go.id/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=48. [01 September 2009].Devappa, R. K., J. Darukesshwara, K. Rathina Raj, K.Narasimhamurthy, P. Saibaba, & S. Bhagya. 2008.Toxicity studies of detoxified jatropha meal (Jatropha cur-cas) in rats. Food Chem. Toxicol. 46: 3621-3625.Goel, G., H. P. S. Makkar, G. Francis, & K. Becker. 2007.Phorbol esters: structure, biological activity, and toxicityin animals. Int. J. Toxicol. 26: 279-288.Han, B., Ma Y., M. Frans, M. J. Rombouts, & N. 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Identification of a Vibrio furnissii Oligopeptide Permease and Characterization of Its In Vitro Hemolytic Activityᰔ†

2011-12-14T04:39:00.001-08:00

JOURNAL OF BACTERIOLOGY, Nov. 2007, p. 8215–82230021-9193/07/$08.00ϩ0 doi:10.1128/JB.01039-07Copyright © 2007, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.Vol. 189, No. 22Tung-Kung Wu,* Yu-Kuo Wang, Yi-Chin Chen, Jen-Min Feng, Yen-Hsi Liu, and Ting-Yi WangDepartment of Biological Science and Technology, National Chiao Tung University, Hsin-Chu, Taiwan, 300, Republic of ChinaReceived 1 July 2007/Accepted 4 September 2007We describe purification and characterization of an oligopeptide permease protein (Hly-OppA) fromVibrio furnissii that has multifaceted functions in solute binding, in in vitro hemolysis, in antibioticresistance, and as a virulence factor in bacterial pathogenesis. The solute-binding function was revealedby N-terminal and internal peptide sequences of the purified protein and was confirmed by discernibleeffects on oligopeptide binding, by accumulation of fluorescent substrates, and by fluorescent substrate-antibiotic competition assay experiments. The purified protein exhibited host-specific in vitro hemolyticactivity against various mammalian erythrocytes and apparent cytotoxicity in CHO-K1 cells. RecombinantHly-OppA protein and an anti-Hly-OppA monoclonal antibody exhibited and neutralized the in vitrohemolytic activity, respectively, which further confirmed the hemolytic activity of the gene product. Inaddition, a V. furnissii hly-oppA knockout mutant caused less mortality than the wild-type strain when itwas inoculated into BALB/c mice, indicating the virulence function of this protein. Finally, the in vitrohemolytic activity was also confirmed with homologous ATP-binding cassette-type transporter proteinsfrom other Vibrio species.Members of the genus Vibrio are major causes of humangastroenteritis resulting from the consumption of contami-nated marine products. Vibrio furnissii, first described as gas-producing biovar II of Vibrio fluvialis by Brenner et al. (4), likeVibrio parahaemolyticus, is thought to cause acute gastroenter-itis with symptoms including diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nau-sea, and vomiting (4, 25, 39).Hemolysin (Hly), in addition to other pathogenic Vibrio fac-tors, such as proteases, hemagglutinins, and other hydrolyticexoenzymes, has been suggested to be an important virulencefactor in the pathogenesis of many Vibrio species and is themost feared virulence factor involved in the gastrointestinaldisorders caused by V. parahaemolyticus (3, 7, 23, 31, 33).However, little is known about V. furnissii and its possibleproduction of toxins, which may be important in both patho-genesis and virulence. Several extracellular hemolysins havebeen isolated and characterized from various species of Vibrio,but not from V. furnissii (2, 5, 15, 19–21, 32, 40). Recently, afunctional role of phosphomannomutase in the virulence of V.furnissii was reported (22).Oligopeptide transport (Opp) systems in bacteria belong tothe ATP-binding cassette (ABC) family of transporters. Theyare composed of five subunits: an extracellular oligopeptide-binding protein that specifically binds to incoming substratesand delivers them to the translocator, two transmembraneproteins that form the pore, and two ATP-binding proteinsinvolved in ATP hydrolysis (13, 17, 18). The Opp systems havediverse functional roles, ranging from uptake of oligopeptidesfrom growth media to various signaling processes (6, 9, 14, 16,24, 27, 34, 38). Studies of this protein family have revealed thatthe oligopeptide permease A (OppA) of bacteria is one of thesolute-binding proteins (SBPs) that play an important role inthe transport of oligopeptides into the cell and in varioussignaling processes (24).Although both Hly and OppA have been broadly character-ized, no direct correlations between these two proteins havebeen reported. In this study, we report identification of an SBP(designated Hly-OppA), originally purified from extracellularmedia of V. furnissii, that has both a solute-binding functionand an in vitro hemolytic activity, and we demonstrate itsvirulent effect in mice.MATERIALS AND METHODSBacterial strains and materials. V. furnissii strain ATCC 35016 was obtainedin a freeze-dried form from the Culture Collection and Research Center (Hsin-Chu, Taiwan). This bacterium showed hemolysis on tryptic soy broth (TSB) agarplates containing 1.5% NaCl and 5% sheep blood. Phenyl Sepharose 6 Fast Flow,Mono Q, and Sepharose 4B columns were provided by Amersham PharmaciaBiotech (Piscataway, NJ). Protein molecular weight standards and a proteinassay kit were obtained from Bio-Rad (Hercules, CA).Purification of Hly-OppA from V. furnissii culture medium. An Erlenmeyerflask containing 500 ml TSB was inoculated with V. furnissii and incubated at37°C in a rotary shaker (180 cycles/min) for 50 h. The culture supernatant wasfirst centrifuged at 6,483 ϫ g for 30 min at 4°C and then subjected to ammoniumsulfate precipitation at 60% saturation. The precipitated proteins were collectedand resuspended in 10 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.6). After dialysis in this buffer, theprotein solution was loaded onto a Phenyl-Sepharose 6 Fast Flow column pre-equilibrated with 10 mM Tris-HCl–1 mM EDTA (pH 7.6) and eluted with alinear 0 to 50% ethylene glycol gradient. Fractions exhibiting hemolysis werepooled, dialyzed, and concentrated using a YM30 ultrafiltration membrane. Theactive sample was applied to a Mono Q column equilibrated with 10 mMTris-HCl and then eluted with 4 void volumes of a step gradient consisting of 50,100, 200, 300, and 500 mM and 1 M KCl. Protein eluted between 100 and 200mM KCl. The active fractions represented partially purified protein and wereused for preparation of a monoclonal antibody. The monoclonal antibody wasconjugated onto Sepharose 4B and used for protein purification. Next, theprotein-bound monoclonal antibody column was washed with 20 void volumes of* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Department of BiologicalScience and Technology, National Chiao Tung University, Hsin-Chu,Taiwan, 300, Republic of China. Phone: 886-3-5729287. Fax: 886-3-5725700. E-mail: tkwmll@mail.nctu.edu.tw.† Supplemental material for this article may be found at http://jb.asm.org/.ᰔPublished ahead of print on 14 September 2007.82158216WU ET AL.J. BACTERIOL.FIG. 1. Purification and characterization of the hemolytic activity of the Hly-OppA protein from V. furnissii. (A) The extracellular medium froma V. furnissii culture (lane 1) was passed through Phenyl Sepharose 6 Fast Flow, Mono Q, and antibody-conjugated Sepharose 4B columns to obtaina homogeneous protein (lane 2) with a molecular mass of ϳ58 kDa, as shown by sodium dodecyl sulfate-PAGE. (B) Native PAGE of purifiedHly-OppA, showing a molecular mass of ϳ120 kDa. (C) Hemolytic activity detected when the ammonium sulfate-precipitated protein fraction(lane 1) and antibody-conjugated purified Hly-OppA (lane 2) from native PAGE were embedded in a blood agar plate. (D) Immunoblot analysiswith antiserum against Hly-OppA, revealing that both the crude (lane 1) and purified (lane 2) proteins yielded a single band. Lane M containedmarkers.10 mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.6) and eluted with 5 void volumes of 10 mMTris-HCl (pH 2.8). The protein solution was neutralized with 80 ␮l of 1 MTris-HCl (pH 10) and assayed to determine hemolytic activity and protein ho-mogeneity.Assay for hemolytic activity. Hemolytic activity was determined using rabbiterythrocytes that were washed three times with 10 mM phosphate-buffered saline(PBS) (pH 7.6) and resuspended at a concentration of 4% (vol/vol). For hemo-lytic activity assays, 0.1 ml of 0.1% Triton X-100, which caused complete releaseof hemoglobin from erythrocytes and resulted in the maximum change in absor-bance at 540 nm, was used as a positive control. The elution buffers, which causednegligible erythrocyte hemolysis compared with sample fractions, were used asnegative controls. One hundred percent hemolysis was defined as the A540 ofhemoglobin released from erythrocytes treated with 0.1% Triton X-100. Onehemolytic unit was defined as the amount of Hly-OppA that caused release of50% of the hemoglobin from the rabbit erythrocytes.Molecular cloning and DNA sequencing. Based on the N-terminal sequenceobtained and the ABC-type oligopeptide transporter conserved gene sequence,we designed a set of degenerate primers (sense primer YKW-ABC-N1 [5Ј-CAAGAGTTCGTTCGTGGTAAC-3Ј] and antisense primer YKW-ABC-C1 [5Ј-TTATTGAGCTTTGATGTAAAG-3Ј]) in order to obtain the core region of theV. furnissii hly-oppA gene. PCR was carried out under the following conditions:denaturation at 94°C for 5 min and then 35 cycles of denaturation at 94°C for15 s, annealing at 58°C for 1 min, and extension at 72°C for 1 min, followed bya final extension at 72°C for 10 min.The rapid amplification of cDNA ends method was used for amplification ofboth the 5Ј and 3Ј ends (12). The internal sequence primers VF-ABC-R2 (5Ј-CGTTTCCCAACTTTCAGCAAC-3Ј) and VF-ABC-F2 (5Ј-GCGTGATATGCCAATCGCACC-3Ј) were used for amplification of the N-terminal and C-terminalDNA fragments, respectively. To obtain the 5Ј end of the gene, a single antisensestrand was amplified by PCR using genomic DNA and the specific antisenseprimer VF-ABC-R2. The resulting DNA was incubated with terminal transferaseand dATP. The sense strand was then generated with a specific poly(dT) primer,using the antisense strand PCR product as the template. For 3Ј end amplifica-tion, two anchor primers, VF-ABC-F2 and poly(dT), specific for the centralportion and the 3Ј nontranslated region, respectively, were used for PCR am-plification of the total DNA, as previously described. The amplified DNA frag-ment was sequenced using an ABI PRISM 3100 autosequencer according to themanufacturer’s protocol (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA).Analysis of DNA and amino acid sequences. The nucleotide sequence analysisand protein sequence comparisons were performed with the BLAST and ClustalWprograms, using the BLAST network services at the National Center for Biotech-nology Information (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov).Expression and purification of recombinant Hly-OppA protein. The hly-oppAgene was first subcloned into two expression plasmids, pET3a and pET28a(ϩ),for Hly-OppA protein expression and antibiotic susceptibility tests. The hly-oppAPCR fragment was amplified from V. furnissii genomic DNA with oligonucleo-tide primers YKW-V.fur-ABC-express-N1 (5Ј-GGAATTCCATATGCAGTTGTTCCAGCTGGCACC-3Ј; NdeI site underlined) and YKW-V.fur-ABC-ex-press-C1 (5Ј-CCGGAATTCTTATT GCGCTTTGATGTAAAG-3Ј; EcoRI siteunderlined) to obtain a 1.56-kbp DNA fragment. This DNA fragment was di-gested with the NdeI and EcoR I restriction enzymes and ligated into thepET28a(ϩ) and pET3a(ϩ) vectors, which were predigested with the same re-striction enzymes, to obtain recombinant expression plasmids pYKW1 andpYKW3, respectively. pYKW1 and pYKW3 were transformed into Escherichiacoli BL21(DE3)(pLysS) cells to generate E. coli strains YKWEC1 andYKWEC3, respectively, for protein expression and antibiotic susceptibility tests.YKWEC1 was grown in 300 ml of LB broth supplemented with 50 ␮g/mlkanamycin at 37°C to an A600 of 0.6. Expression was induced by addition ofisopropyl-␤-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) to a final concentration of 1 mM,and the culture was incubated at 37°C for an additional 5 h before centrifugation.The cells were harvested and resuspended in 15 ml of 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.6)buffer. The mixture was sonicated, and the cell debris was removed by centrif-ugation at 12,000 ϫ g for 30 min at 4°C.Preparation and characterization of monoclonal antibody. A 0.5-ml solutioncontaining equal parts of Freund’s complete adjuvant and Mono Q chromatog-raphy-purified Hly-OppA protein (50 ␮g) was injected into female BALB/c mice.This was followed by three booster injections consisting of 50 ␮g of the proteinemulsified with Freund’s incomplete adjuvant at 10-day intervals; the animalswere bled for hybridization 4 days after the last injection. A myeloma cell line(FO) was fused with spleen cells from immunized BALB/c mice at a ratio of 1:5.The culture medium (obtained between days 14 and 21 after fusion) was assayedfor the production of specific antibodies by a solid-phase enzyme-linked immu-nosorbent assay, using purified protein as the antigen. Each monoclonal antibodywas established by limiting dilutions at least twice. The monoclonal antibodypreparation was used with purified and crude V. furnissii Hly-OppA protein. Thespecificity of the antibody was confirmed by Western blotting.For immunoblot experiments, proteins were electrophoretically separated andtransferred onto polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membranes. The PVDFmembranes were washed with the PBS buffer (pH 7.6) containing 0.05% Tween20 (PBST) for 10 min, and the immunoblot experiments were carried out byVOL. 189, 2007FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERIZATION OF V. FURNISSII Hly-OppAFIG. 2. Dot blots demonstrating binding of the 9-mer oligopeptidelibrary to purified Hly-OppA protein in a concentration-dependentmanner (lanes 3 to 7). Lanes 1 and 2 contained Hly-OppA protein andBSA, which were positive (P) and negative (N) controls, respectively.following the procedure for the ECL Western blotting system, using monoclonalantibody raised against Hly-OppA (1:500) and anti-mouse immunoglobulin-horseradish peroxidase (HRP) conjugate (1:5,000). Excess ligand was removedby washing preparations with PBST for 30 min, and detection of the proteins wasperformed according to the manufacturer’s instructions (Amersham PharmaciaBiotech, Piscataway, NJ). Membranes were exposed to Hyperfilm ECL (Amer-sham Pharmacia Biotech, Piscataway, NJ) for different times or until a suitablesignal was obtained.Construction of the V. furnissii hly-oppA knockout mutant and a strain withhly-oppA restored. An hly-oppA knockout mutant of V. furnissii (VFYKW1) wasconstructed by the allelic exchange method (10). A 467-bp fragment, whichincluded 162 bp of the 5Ј end and 305 bp of the 3Ј end of the hly-oppA gene, wasamplified by PCR with primers YKW-ABC-N1 and YKW-VF-ABC-knockout-RF1 (antisense primer; 5Ј-AAGTTGGGAAACGGTGGTGACTACAACAA-3Ј) and primers YKW-VF-ABC-knockout-F1 (sense primer; 5Ј-AAGTTGGGAAACGGTGGTGACTACAACAA-3Ј) and YKW-ABC-C1. The PCR productwas cloned into an allelic exchange suicide vector, pCVD442, to generate arecombinant plasmid, pVF-hly-oppA-K, which was transformed into a conjugaldonor, E. coli S17-1 ␭pir (8). The transformed E. coli S17-1 ␭pir strain and V.furnissii were grown in LB and TSB, respectively, overnight at 37°C beforetransconjugation was performed. The pVF-hly-oppA-K vector was then trans-ferred from E. coli to V. furnissii. The transconjugants were selected on thiosul-fate citrate bile salts sucrose agar plates containing ampicillin (200 ␮g/ml) andtested for sensitivity to 10% sucrose. The sucrose-sensitive transconjugants were8217grown in LB containing 10% sucrose overnight and spread onto a plate contain-ing LB with 10% sucrose for selection of sucrose-resistant clones, and they werefurther tested for ampicillin sensitivity. The sucrose-resistant, ampicillin-sensitivestrains were then screened by PCR for a 467-bp product that represented thehly-oppA deletion. The presence or absence of the hly-oppA fragment was vali-dated both by using a standard biochemical substrate assay kit (Microgen GN-IDIdentification; Microgen Bioproducts Ltd., Camberley, United Kingdom) and bydirect sequencing. Genomic DNA was purified from VFYKW1 and sequenced toconfirm successful construction of the knockout strain. For construction of astrain with hly-oppA restored (VFYKW2), the hly-oppA gene containing thesignal sequence was amplified by PCR using primers YKW-ABC-SP-N1 (senseprimer; 5Ј-ATGTATAAAAATAAGATCACA-3Ј) and YKW-ABC-C1.Oligopeptide binding tests. For oligopeptide binding experiments, 4 ␮g/mleach of the Hly-OppA protein and bovine serum albumin (BSA) and differentconcentrations (0.1, 1, 4, 16, and 64 ␮g/ml) of a 9-mer oligopeptide library weredot blotted onto a PVDF membrane. The unbound area on the membrane wasblocked with 5% nonfat milk and washed three times with PBS containing 0.05%Tween 20. The membrane was incubated with anti-Hly-OppA antibody (1:500)and then with anti-mouse immunoglobulin-HRP conjugate (1:5,000). Mem-branes were exposed to a 3,3-diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride (DAB) solu-tion (10 ␮l of 30% H2O2 and 100 ␮l of DAB [20 mg/ml DAB in dimethylsulfoxide] in 10 ml of 50 mM Tris buffer [pH 7.6]) until a suitable signal wasobtained.Antibiotic susceptibility tests. Individual plates were inoculated with V. furnis-sii and E. coli containing recombinant hly-oppA expression plasmids. Filter paperdisks that were 6.0 mm in diameter were impregnated with ampicillin (10 ␮g),carbenicillin (100 ␮g), cephalothin (30 ␮g), chloramphenicol (30 ␮g), colistinsulfate (10 ␮g), gentamicin (10 ␮g), kanamycin (30 ␮g), nalidixic acid (30 ␮g),penicillin G (10 U), polymyxin B (300 U), streptomycin (10 ␮g), or tetracycline(30 ␮g) and were placed on the surface of the plates. The plates were incubatedfor 16 h at 37°C under microaerophilic conditions. The resulting inhibition zonediameters were expressed in millimeters.Fluorescent substrate binding and antibiotic competition of the V. furnissiiHly-OppA protein. The solute-binding efficiency of fluorescent substrates wasdetermined using a Thermo Labsystems fluorometer. The excitation and emis-sion wavelengths were 544 and 590 nm for ethidium bromide (EtBr) and 485 and538 nm for SYBR green, respectively. To demonstrate binding of EtBr in intactbacteria, wild-type V. furnissii, VFYKW1, YKWEC1, and YKWEC2 were grownFIG. 3. Vector construction for expression and knockout of the hly-oppA gene. (A) The full-length hly-oppA gene was treated with the NdeIand EcoRI restriction enzymes and inserted into a kanamycin-resistant pET28a(ϩ) vector predigested with the same enzymes to generate pYKW1.(B) The same hly-oppA open reading frame was inserted into the NdeI/EcoRI sites of ampicillin-resistant pET3a(ϩ) to generate pYKW3. (C) V.furnissii chromosomal DNA was used as a template for amplification of 162 bp of the 5Ј end and 305 bp of the 3Ј end of the hly-oppA gene. The467-bp PCR fragment was cloned into an allelic exchange suicide vector, pCVD442, to generate the knockout plasmid pVF-hly-oppA-K. ThepVF-hly-oppA-K plasmid was transferred from E. coli to V. furnissii to generate the V. furnissii hly-oppA knockout strain VFYKW1. The full-lengthhly-oppA gene was cloned into pCVD442 to generate pVF-hly-oppA-I and transferred to VFYKW1 to generate the V. furnissii VFYKW2 strainwith hly-oppA restored.8218WU ET AL.J. BACTERIOL.FIG. 4. Solute-binding activity and competitive inhibition tests using the fluorescent substrates EtBr (10 ␮M) and SYBR green (100 U) andvarious concentrations of ampicillin. The excitation (Ex) and emission (Em) wavelengths were 544 and 590 nm for EtBr and 485 and 538 nm forSYBR green, respectively. (A) Transport of EtBr in wild-type V. furnissii (F) or VFYKW1 (E). (B) Transport of EtBr in YKWEC1 or YKWEC2.XI, EtBr alone; ‚, pET28a(ϩ) alone; छ, pYKW1 alone; E, pET28a(ϩ) plus EtBr; F, pYKW1 plus EtBr. (C) Transport of SYBR green in wild-typeV. furnissii (F) or VFYKW1 (E). (D) Transport of SYBR green in YKWEC1 or YKWEC2. E, pET28a(ϩ) plus SYBR green; F, pYKW1 plusSYBR green. (E) Ampicillin competitively inhibited transport of EtBr in YKWEC1 in a concentration-dependent manner. Œ, pYKW1 plus EtBr;F, pYKW1 plus EtBr plus 0.5 mg/ml ampicillin; E, pYKW1 plus EtBr plus 2 mg/ml ampicillin. (F) SYBR green competitively inhibited transportof EtBr in YKWEC1 in a concentration-dependent manner. Œ, pYKW1 plus EtBr; F, pYKW1 plus EtBr plus 5 U SYBR green; E, pYKW1 plusEtBr plus 50 U SYBR green.overnight in LB (supplemented with 25 ␮g/ml kanamycin for strains YKWEC1and YKWEC2) and were diluted into fresh LB. When the cultures reached anA600 of 1 at 37°C, the bacteria were centrifuged at 825 ϫ g for 2 min andresuspended in buffer (50 mM potassium phosphate [pH 7.2], 25 mM glucose, 5mM MgSO4). The process was repeated twice, and the resulting pellets wereresuspended in 1 ml buffer. For the solute-binding activity assay, either EtBr (10␮M) or SYBR green (100 U) was added to a fluorometry plate containing 200 ␮lof cells. The resulting solution was monitored at 25°C for fluorescence excitationand emission for 20 min at 20-s intervals. When the antibiotic competition assaywas performed, different concentrations (500 ␮g/ml and 2 mg/ml) of ampicillinand 10 ␮M EtBr were mixed and then added to a fluorometry plate containing200 ␮l of cells. For SYBR green competition assays of EtBr influx, differentconcentrations (5 and 50 U) of SYBR green were added, and the bindingefficiency of EtBr was recorded as previously described.Biofilm assay. The biofilm formation assay used was based on a modifiedmethod (37). Cells from overnight colonies were grown on tryptic soy agar (TSA)plates and in 3 ml TSB at 37°C overnight. Cells from the plates were freshlyinoculated into 3 ml TSB and grown to an A600 of 0.5. Three microliters of eachcell suspension was added to 1 ml TSB in borosilicate glass tubes. The cultureswere then incubated at 37°C without shaking for the time required. The tubeswere rinsed with distilled water to remove nonadherent cells. Biofilms werestained by addition of 1.2 ml of 1% crystal violet for 25 min, followed by adistilled water rinse. The cell-associated dye was solubilized in 1.2 ml dimethylsulfoxide and quantified by measuring the A570 of the resulting solution. Eachassay was performed at least in triplicate.Thermostability of the purified protein. The effect of temperature on thehemolytic activity of purified Hly-OppA was determined by incubating 2 hemo-lytic units of the purified protein in PBS for 30 min at different temperatures (16,25, 30, 37, 40, 42, 45, 50, 52, 55, 57, 60, 65, 70, and 75°C) and then assaying theresidual hemolytic activity with 4% rabbit erythrocytes, as previously described.Detection of cytotoxic effects on CHO-K1 cells. The purified Hly-OppA wasassayed to determine its activity against CHO-K1 cells. Cells were grown in anF-12 medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and were maintainedin a humidified atmosphere consisting of 5% CO2 in air at 37°C. Single-cellsuspensions were obtained from ϳ90% confluent cultures by harvesting cellswith trypsin-EDTA and then seeded into six-well plates. For morphologicalstudies, 1 ␮g/ml of Hly-OppA was added to a cell culture, and the plates wereincubated for 30 min at 37°C. Cells were stained with 50% trypan blue exclusionstain and then visualized by microscopy. In parallel, cells treated with BSA andPBS were used as negative controls.VOL. 189, 2007FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERIZATION OF V. FURNISSII Hly-OppA8219FIG. 5. Effect of the Hly-OppA protein on the V. furnissii hemolytic phenotype, erythrocyte lysis, morphology, and cytotoxicity in CHO-K1 cells.(A) Hemolytic phenotype of wild-type V. furnissii, VFYKW1, and VFYKW2 on TSA containing 5% sheep blood. (B) Erythrocyte lysis andhemoglobin release caused by purified Hly-OppA protein in the presence or absence of anti-Hly-OppA monoclonal antibody, as measured by thechange in absorbance at 540 nm. Blank, PBS buffer; Negative control, BSA (0.5 ␮g/␮l); Hly-OppA, 0.1 ␮g/␮l Hly-OppA; Hly-OppA ϩ antiHly-OppA mAb, 0.1 ␮g/␮l Hly-OppA plus 0.1 ␮g/␮l anti-Hly-OppA monoclonal antibody; Hly-OppA ϩ mouse serum, 0.1 ␮g/␮l Hly-OppA plus0.1 g/␮l mouse serum; Positive control, 0.1% Triton X-100. (C and D) CHO-K1 cells were not exposed (C) or exposed (D) to the Hly-OppA protein(1 ␮g/ml) for 30 min at 37°C. (E) Dose-dependent cytotoxicity of the Hly-OppA protein in CHO-K1 cells. CHO-K1 cells were exposed to variousconcentrations of the Hly-OppA protein for 30 min, and the viability of the cells was determined using a commercial cytotoxicity assay kit. Thedata are the means and standard deviations from at least three independent experiments.Cell viability was assessed with a cell counting kit, and the assays were per-formed in F-12 medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum. TheCHO-K1 cells were treated with serial dilutions of Hly-OppA (0, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5,1, and 2 ␮g/ml) and maintained in a humidified atmosphere consisting of 5%CO2 in air at 37°C for 24 h. After trypsinization and trypan blue exclusion of thecells, the cells were counted and the results were compared with the numbers ofcells in the untreated cultures. The viability data were expressed as means andstandard deviations from the three independent experiments.Scanning electron microscopic analysis of cell morphology. The V. furnissiiwild-type strain and the hly-oppA knockout mutant were incubated in brothmedium for the time required. Cell morphology was determined by scanningelectron microscopy. Briefly, cell-containing coverslips were fixed in a 2.5%glutaraldehyde solution for 1 h at room temperature. The coverslips were thentreated with a 1% osmium tetroxide solution for 30 min, dehydrated with agraded acetone series, washed with an ethanol series, and dried with hexameth-yldisilazane (HMDS). The coverslips were then mounted onto stubs using col-loidal silver and were sputter coated with gold-palladium.Virulence of wild-type V. furnissii and hly-oppA knockout mutant strains inmice. BALB/c mice ranging from 8 to 12 weeks old were used as previouslydescribed (38). Mice were anesthetized and injected subcutaneously with variousamounts (108 to ϳ1012 CFU) of the wild-type V. furnissii and VFYKW1 strains.The numbers of surviving mice inoculated with various numbers of CFU werethen monitored for 1 month to determine the 50% lethal dose. Three mice wereused in each of the 50% lethal dose experiments, and the data represent threeindependent experiments.Nucleotide sequence accession number. The nucleotide sequence of the V.furnissii hly-oppA gene has been deposited in the GenBank database underaccession number DQ777764.RESULTSPurification and determination of the sequence of the V.furnissii protein with hemolytic activity. We obtained 877-foldenrichment of the specific in vitro hemolytic activity of Hly-OppA from growth media of V. furnissii (see Table S1 in thesupplemental material). Electrophoresis of the homogeneousprotein revealed a molecular mass of ϳ58 kDa as determinedby sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis(PAGE) (Fig. 1A). A single band at approximately 120 kDawas found using nondenaturing PAGE, and the hemolytic ac-tivity of this protein band suggested that it is a dimeric proteinunder physiological conditions (Fig. 1B and 1C). Immunoblotanalysis revealed that both crude and purified proteins pro-duced single bands (Fig. 1D).To determine the protein’s identity, the purified protein wassubjected to both N-terminal determination and internalamino acid sequence determination, and the correspondinggene was cloned and sequenced. The N-terminal sequence wasAVVPAGTRLADVQEFVRNC. Three internal peptide se-quences were IATAIQSMWK, VTYLPIENQVAEMNR, andSNPLNFTLLYNTSENHK. The gene coding sequence was a1,551-bp open reading frame that encodes a 516-amino-acid8220WU ET AL.J. BACTERIOL.FIG. 6. Scanning electron micrographs, biofilm productivity, and growth curves of wild-type V. furnissii and VFYKW1. (A) Micrograph ofwild-type V. furnissii exhibiting a rod-shaped morphology. Magnification, ϫ10,000. (B) Diplococcus-shaped VFYKW1 with a “dehydrated string”morphology on the cellular surface. Magnification, ϫ10,000. (C) VFYKW2 exhibiting a rod-shaped morphology similar to that of the wild type.(D) Comparison of biofilm production by wild-type V. furnissii (V. furnissii WT) and VFYKW1 (hly-oppA mutant). OD570, optical density at 570nm. (E) Comparison of growth ratios of wild-type V. furnissii and VFYKW1. OD600, optical density at 600 nm.polypeptide with a calculated molecular mass of 58,516 Da;this molecular mass is comparable to the size of the proteinpurified from the culture medium. A database search of thesesequences showed high sequence similarity to the oligopeptideABC transporter proteins which belong to bacterial extracel-lular SBP family 5 (35). The deduced amino acid sequence had91, 82, 73, and 71% identity to V. fluvialis OppA and theABC-type oligopeptide transporter sequences from Vibriocholerae, Vibrio vulnificus, and V. parahaemolyticus, respec-tively. In addition, a conserved AESWETTDNKTFIFHLRKNAKW sequence motif, homologous to the consensus se-quence of bacterial extracellular SBP family 5, was identifiedbetween amino acids 61 and 82. Compared to the sequence ofV. fluvialis OppA, however, a 27-amino-acid region of thesignal sequence was absent from the translated N-terminalsequence of the purified protein, but the corresponding se-quence was present in the DNA sequence. The extensive se-quence homology of the purified protein to bacterial extracel-lular SBP family 5 but not to the expected hemolysin sequencereported so far is a very interesting finding. These resultsprompted us to further investigate the solute binding, in vitrohemolytic activity, morphological effects, and role in virulenceof the hly-oppA gene product.Identification of the solute-binding function of the V. furnis-sii Hly-OppA protein. To identify the solute-binding functionof Hly-OppA, we performed oligopeptide-binding, accumula-tion of fluorescent substrate, and fluorescent substrate-antibi-otic competition experiments. A 9-mer oligopeptide librarywas first immunoblotted with the anti-Hly-OppA monoclonalantibody and anti-mouse immunoglobulin-HRP conjugate toexclude the possibility of nonspecific binding. The library wasthen incubated with purified Hly-OppA protein and detectedwith the above-mentioned primary and secondary antibodies.The results showed that the 9-mer oligopeptide library exhib-ited concentration-dependent binding, whereas no binding af-finity was observed for the BSA protein (Fig. 2).We then investigated the accumulation of the fluorescentsubstrate of the hly-oppA gene product, using the wild-type V.furnissii strain and the hly-oppA gene knockout mutant(VFYKW1), as well as the strain with the hly-oppA gene trans-formed into E. coli (YKWEC1) (Fig. 3). We assessed thebinding of EtBr and SYBR green (26) in a substrate compe-tition assay by adding different concentrations of ampicillin toEtBr and measuring the effect on the fluorescence emissionintensity. The results show that both EtBr and SYBR greenaccumulation increased with time for both wild-type V. furnissiiand YKWEC1, but little effect was seen with VFYKW1 andYKWEC2 (Fig. 4A to D). Moreover, adding different concen-trations of ampicillin or SYBR green to the EtBr resulted in adecrease in fluorescence intensity in a concentration-depen-dent manner compared to the results with EtBr alone (Fig. 4Eand 4F), demonstrating the solute-binding activity of thehly-oppA gene product.Characterization of the in vitro hemolytic function and cy-totoxicity of the V. furnissii Hly-OppA protein. To clearly dem-onstrate the in vitro hemolytic activity and cytotoxicity of V.furnissii Hly-OppA, we carried out blood agar and erythrocytelysis assays, mammalian cell cytotoxicity experiments, andanti-Hly-OppA monoclonal antibody protection experiments.Hemolytic activity was present on TSA plates incubated at37°C with wild-type V. furnissii and VFYKW2 within 11 and12 h, respectively, but was not present with VFYKW1 evenafter 36 h of incubation, as shown in Fig. 5A. Incubation withthe purified protein also led to significant lysis of sheep eryth-rocytes and release of hemoglobin as measured by a change inabsorbance at 540 nm (Fig. 5B). A decrease in erythrocyte lysisVOL. 189, 2007FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERIZATION OF V. FURNISSII Hly-OppA8221FIG. 7. Susceptibility to various antibiotics of (A) the wild-type V. furnissii and VFYKW1 knockout strains and (B) recombinant strainsYKWEC1 and YKWEC2. The concentrations of various antibiotics utilized in the experiment are described in Materials and Methods.was observed when the protein was neutralized with anti-Hly-OppA monoclonal antibody, suggesting that the monoclonalantibody could block hemolytic activity (Fig. 5B). When mam-malian CHO-K1 cells were treated with various concentrationsof purified Hly-OppA, morphological changes, including celldetachment, loss of cell cytoplasm with cell shrinkage, andreduction in nucleus size, were observed (Fig. 5C and D).Cytotoxicity was also determined by measuring the amount oflactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity released into the me-dium following destabilization of the plasma membrane andthe accumulation of LDH in the extracellular compartmentafter addition of Hly-OppA. The amount of LDH found in theculture medium after addition of 4 ␮g/ml Hly-OppA was 80%of the amount released after the addition of lysis buffer (Fig.5E). Purified Hly-OppA exhibited host-specific activitiesagainst various erythrocytes, with the highest hemolytic activityagainst rabbit erythrocytes (100%) and lower activity againstmouse (61%), pig (60%), and human erythrocytes (11%),demonstrating the in vitro hemolytic activity and cytotoxicity ofthe Hly-OppA protein.Determination of the morphology and biofilm production ofthe V. furnissii hly-oppA knockout mutant. To investigatewhether the hly-oppA gene product affects the phenotype of V.furnissii, we assessed morphology and biofilm production onTSB. Scanning electron microscopy examination revealed thatthe wild-type strain has a rod-shaped morphology, whereas theknockout mutant forms diplococci (Fig. 6A and B). As ex-pected, the cell morphology of a V. furnissii strain with hly-oppA restored (VFYKW2) was the same as that of the wild-type strain (Fig. 6C). We then examined whether the growthrate and biofilm production of the V. furnissii hly-oppA mutantdiffered from the growth rate and biofilm production of thewild-type strain. The biofilm production of VFYKW1 wasabout twice that of the wild-type (Fig. 6D), whereas the plank-tonic cell numbers of the wild type were twice those ofVFYKW1 (Fig. 6E). These data suggest that the absence of thehly-oppA gene affects both the cell growth rate and biofilmproduction, as well as cell morphology.Functional roles of the hly-oppA gene product in antibioticresistance and virulence. We next investigated the contribu-8222J. BACTERIOL.WU ET AL.gesting that the in vitro hemolytic activity may be prevalent inVibrio species with gene sequences homologous to hly-oppA.DISCUSSIONFIG. 8. Characterization of in vitro hemolytic phenotypes of vari-ous Vibrio homologous ABC transporter proteins cloned and overex-pressed in E. coli. Section 1, pRSET (negative control); section 2,pRSET-Hly-oppA from V. furnissii; section 3, pRSET-Hly-oppA fromV. fluvialis; section 4, pRSET-Hly-oppA from V. vulnificus; section 5,pRSET-Hly-oppA from V. parahaemolyticus.tion of the hly-oppA gene product to the development of mul-tidrug resistance in both the wild-type V. furnissii strain and theVFYKW1 knockout strain, as well as in E. coli, and the viru-lence in mice. Discernible differences in antibiotic resistancebetween the wild-type V. furnissii and VFYKW1 strains wereobserved, with the latter exhibiting increased susceptibility,when several antibiotics were tested (Fig. 7A). In addition, tworecombinant plasmids, pYKW1 and pYKW3, were con-structed, transformed into E. coli BL21(DE3)(pLysS) cells,and used to investigate the effects of different antibiotics. Sig-nificant antibiotic resistance was also observed in E. coli cellsexpressing Hly-OppA recombinant protein but not in E. colicells lacking this protein (Fig. 7B).To investigate the virulence of hly-oppA in vivo, BALB/cmice were injected with wild-type V. furnissii and VFYKW1and the mortality rates were determined (11, 38). No patho-genic effects were observed when 8 ϫ 1012 CFU of VFYKW1was injected into mice, but the lethal dose of the V. furnissiiwild-type strain was 5 ϫ 109 CFU. These results indicate thatthe hly-oppA gene is required for V. furnissii lethality in mice.Determination of in vitro hemolytic activity of homologousSBPs from other Vibrio species. Is the Hly-OppA protein se-quence with in vitro hemolytic activity unique to V. furnissii, oris it also present in homologous proteins from other Vibriospecies? To answer this question, the V. furnissii hly-oppA geneand the homologous genes encoding ABC-type oligopeptidetransporter sequences from V. fluvialis, V. vulnificus, and V.parahaemolyticus were each cloned into a chitinase signal se-quence-derived pRSET vector. Apparent in vitro hemolyticphenotypes were observed for all four pRSET-derived recom-binant plasmids but not for the control plasmid (Fig. 8), sug-There is increasing evidence for a connection between ABC-type transporter proteins and bacterial virulence. A lipoproteinthat confers a hemolytic phenotype to E. coli and shows se-quence homology to periplasmic siderophore-binding proteinswas identified in Campylobacter jejuni (29, 30). Disruption ofan oppB gene in Bacillus thuringiensis was reported to abolishexpression of the plcR regulon, a pleiotropic regulator of vir-ulence factors in both B. thuringiensis and Bacillus cereus, andresulted in a nonhemolytic phenotype of B. thuringiensis (14).Further, a mutational study of the oppA gene of group Astreptococci also suggested that Opp plays an important role inthe pathogenesis of group A streptococcus infection, suggest-ing that it has dual roles in the regulation of several virulencegenes and regulatory genes (38). However, no evidence di-rectly indicating the involvement of OppA in virulence wasreported.Acosta et al. reported that an OppA protein purified froman E. coli K-12 strain exhibited resistance to various aminogly-coside antibiotics (1). Moreover, nine potential drug transport-ers belonging to resistance-nodulation-division-type systems,drug efflux systems of the major facilitator, multidrug and toxiccompound extrusion systems, or ABC superfamilies in Salmo-nella enterica have been hypothesized to play important roles inmultidrug resistance and virulence phenotypes (28). Finally, arecently reported in vivo challenge of plague with the Yersiniapestis OppA protein also suggested that antibody to OppA wasresponsible for protection, although the functional role ofOppA in the virulence of Y. pestis and the mechanism by whichimmunization with OppA provides protection against Y. pestisremain unclear (36).In the present study we report that a protein with in vitrohemolytic activity containing an amino acid sequence that ishighly homologous to the ABC-type oligopeptide transporterprotein from other Vibrio species was purified from the V.furnissii extracellular medium. The solute-binding function andin vitro hemolytic activity of this protein, as well as its cytotox-icity, were characterized using purified and recombinant pro-teins, as well as anti-Hly-OppA monoclonal antibody protec-tion experiments. An hly-oppA knockout mutant showed adifference in fluorescent substrate accumulation and attenua-tion of multiple drug resistance to various classes of antibiotics.Both scanning electron microscopy investigation and determi-nation of the mortality rate in BALB/c mice inoculated withboth wild-type V. furnissii and the knockout mutant revealedeffects on cellular morphology and pathogenesis. Since Hly-OppA has multiple roles in allocrite transport, antibiotic resis-tance, in vitro hemolysis, changes in morphology, and virulencein mice, the role of this protein is obviously complicated. Fur-ther studies are in progress to determine whether the virulenceand pathogenesis upon V. furnissii infection and the mode ofregulation affect Hly-OppA binding and subsequent molecularinteractions.FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERIZATION OF V. FURNISSII Hly-OppAVOL. 189, 2007ACKNOWLEDGMENTSWe thank National Chiao Tung University and the MOE ATUProgram for financially supporting this research.We are grateful to Yaw-Kuen Li and Michael Donnenberg forsupplying the expression vector, the pRSET vector, and the knockoutvector pCVD442. We also thank Yu-Ju Chen and Hsin-Kai Liao (Aca-demia Sinica Institute of Chemistry, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic ofChina) for kindly performing the internal amino acid sequence anal-yses.REFERENCES1. Acosta, M. B. R., R. C. C. Ferreira, G. Padilla, L. C. S. Ferreira, and S. O. P.Costa. 2000. Altered expression of oligopeptide-binding protein (OppA) andaminoglycoside resistance in laboratory and clinical Escherichia coli strains.J. Med. Microbiol. 49:409–413.2. Alm, R. 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Identifikasi Ukuran Tubuh dan Bentuk Tubuh Domba Garut Tipe Tangkas, Tipe Pedaging dan Persilangannya Melalui Pendekatan Analisis Komponen Utama

2011-12-14T04:38:00.002-08:00

A Gunawan dkk/Animal Production 11 (1) 8‐14 (Identification of Body Size and Body Shape of Garut Sheep Fighting Type and Meat Type and Garut Cross Based on Principal Component Analysis) A Gunawan, R H Mulyono dan C Sumantri* Departemen Ilmu Produksi dan Teknologi PeternakanFakultas Peternakan, Institut Pertanian Bogor Jln. Agathis, Kampus IPB Darmaga Bogor 16680, *Penulis korespondensi email: cece_sumantri12@yahoo.co.id Abstract. This research was done to identify the body size and shape among three types of local sheeps of Garut fighting type, Garut meat type and their crossbred fighting and meat type in Garut district (Margawati, Sukawening and Wanaraja) and Bogor district (Ciomas and Cinagara). The total number of sheep from Garut district used in this study were 520 head consisting of crossbred sheep from Margawati (71 head), fighting sheep from Wanaraja (79 head), meat sheep from Wanaraja (84 head), fighting sheep from Sukawening (87 head) and meat sheep from Sukawening (62 head). Whereas the total number of sheep from Bogor district were 137 head consisting of those of fighting sheep from Ciomas (66 head) and from Cinagara (70 head). Some body measurenments measured in this study were body weight, body length, wither height, chest width, chest circumfrence, cranium, tail length and tail width. Analysis of all those sizes were based on principal component analysis (PCA) then visualized into the group of crowded diagram. Different group of crowed builded on the base of scoring in body size and body shape derivated from covarian matrix were able to identifed morphologycal penotypic differences among garut sheep studied. The results from canonical analyses showed that body lenght, chest girth,chest width, and wither height were the most discriminant variables had impact to the diferences score size between types of Garut sheep. However, the tail length and tail width were variables had impact to diferences score shape. The crowed diagram showed that an intersection among three types (fighting, meat and crossbred) of sheeps suspected as resulted from the same genetic resource, namely Garut sheep. Genetic flow was suspected from crossbred in Margawati to meat sheep in Cinagara as well as the sheeps from Sukawening and Wanaraja to fighting sheep in Ciomas. Close genetic distances that were found among fighting and meat sheeps in Sukaweining as well as fighting and meat sheeps in Wanaraja could be considered that these two groups of sheeps as the genetic resource of fighting sheep in Ciomas. Key Words: garut sheep, principal component analysis (PCA), body size and shape kabupaten Garut dalam upaya meningkatkan produksi daging nasional khususnya dari ternak domba yang masih kurang jumlahnya melalui peningkatan produktivitas ternak. Pemilihan domba Garut untuk dikembangkan didasarkan atas potensi sifat prolifikasi dan kemampuan beradaptasi yang cukup baik. Domba Garut memiliki tingkat kesuburan tinggi (prolifik), memiliki potensi yang baik sebagai tipe pedaging untuk dikembangkan sebagai sumber daging dan sebagai tipe tangkas yang dapat dijadikan sebagai daya tarik pariwisata daerah. Pada perkembangannya domba Garut sekarang Pendahuluan Domba Garut merupakan sumber genetik ternak lokal Indonesia yang perlu dilestarikan keberadaannya. Kecamatan Wanaraja dan Kecamatan Sukawening sebagai salah satu sentra pengembangan dan penghasil bibit domba pedaging dan tangkas di Kabupaten Garut. Populasi domba di Kabupaten Garut mencapai 337.036 ekor (Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten Garut, 2004). Upaya pengembangan dan peningkatan populasi domba Garut perlu dilakukan di luar 8 A Gunawan dkk/Animal Production 11 (1) 8‐14 sudah menyebar tidak hanya di daerah Garut saja akan tetapi menyebar ke beberapa daerah di luar Garut diantaranya daerah Bogor. Beberapa keunggulan domba Garut dibandingkan dengan domba lainya menurut Gunawan dan Noor (2005) diantaranya: memiliki produktivitas cukup baik dan relatif tahan terhadap penyakit, memiliki keunggulan komparatif terutama dalam hal performa dan kekuatannya serta memiliki bobot badan yang dapat bersaing dengan domba impor dalam hal kualitas dan produktivitas. Istiqomah et al. (2006) melaporkan domba Garut mempunyai bobot lahir dan bobot sapih yang tinggi, seleksi berdasarkan bobot sapih dapat meningkatkan bobot dewasa. Hasil penelitian Sumantri et al. (2007) tentang hubungan phylogenik antara domba lokal di Indonesia melalui pendekatan analisis morfologi menunjukkan domba Garut mempunyai karakteristik spesifik dan mempunyai jarak genetik terjauh dari kelompok domba lokal lainnya di Indonesia seperti domba Madura, Donggala, Rote, Sumbawa dan Kisar. Identifikasi keragaman bentuk tubuh pada domba muda di Nigeria melalui Analisis Komponen Utama (AKU) telah dilaporkan oleh Salako (2006b). Karakterisasi penciri ukuran dan bentuk pada domba Garut tipe tangkas, pedaging dan silangannya masih sangat kurang, oleh karena itu penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengidentifikasi karakteristik penciri ukuran (size) dan bentuk tubuh domba Garut tipe tangkas, pedaging dan persilangannya di daerah Garut dan luar Garut melalui Analisis Komponen Utama (AKU). Informasi tersebut sangat penting sebagai kriteria seleksi dalam menentukan karakteristik dari domba Garut tipe tangkas, pedaging dan persilangannya di daerah Garut dan luar Garut. atas domba tangkas Ciomas sebanyak 66 ekor, dan tipe pedaging Cinagara sebanyak 71 ekor. Ukuran tubuh yang Diukur Ukuran tubuh yang diukur meliputi tinggi pundak, panjang badan, lebar dada, dalam dada, lingkar dada, panjang tengkorak, lebar tengkorak, panjang ekor, dan lebar ekor Analisis Data Data ukuran‐ukuran tubuh domba dianalisis dengan Analisis Komponen Utama (AKU). Sebelum dilakukan pembandingan, kelompok domba yang diteliti distandarisasi ke dalam kelompok umur dua tahun sesuai menurut Sumantri, et al. (2007) dengan rumus sebagai berikut: XstandarXi‐terkoreksi = x Xpengamatan ke‐i Xpengamatan Keterangan :Xi‐terkoreksi Xpengamatan ke‐i standarXXpengamatan= ukuran ke‐i yang dikoreksi = ukuran peng‐ amatan ke‐i = rataan sampel umur dua tahun = rataan sampel Yang diamati Data yang diperoleh dianalisis menggunakan Analisis Komponen Utama (AKU). Pengolahan data dilakukan dengan menggunakan perangkat lunak Minitab Release 13. Penggunaan AKU untuk mendapatkan persamaan ukuran dan bentuk yang diturunkan dari matriks kovarian (Gaspersz, 1992). Persamaan ukuran diperoleh dari persamaan skor komponen utama ke‐1 (keragaman total tertinggi), sedangkan persamaan bentuk diperoleh dari persamaan skor komponen ke‐2 (keragaman total setelah yang tertinggi). Skor pada persamaan ukuran disetarakan dengan sumbu X dan skor persamaan bentuk disetarakan dengan sumbu Y, sehingga dapat divisualisasikan dalam bentuk diagram kerumunan (Nishida et al., 1982). Model Matematika AKU menurut Gaspersz (1992) sebagai berikut: Y1=a11X1+a21X2+a31X3+...+a91X9 Keterangan: Y1 = komponen utama ke‐1 (skor ukuran) (Nishida et al., 1982) Metode Penelitian Ternak Ternak yang diamati sebanyak 520 ekor domba Garut yang berasal dari Margawati merupakan (persilangan antara betina tipe pedaging dengan pejantan tipe tangkas) sebanyak 71 ekor, tangkas Wanaraja sebanyak 79 ekor, pedaging Wanaraja sebanyak 84 ekor, tangkas Sukawening sebanyak 87 ekor, pedaging Sukawening sebanyak 62 ekor. Domba Garut dari kabupaten Bogor terdiri 9 A Gunawan dkk/Animal Production 11 (1) 8‐14 X1‐X9 = variabel ke 1,2,3...9 a11‐a91 = vektor Eigen ke‐ 1,2,3...,9 Y2 = a12X1+a22X2+a32X3+...+a92X9 Keterangan: Y2 = komponen utama ke‐2 (skor bentuk) (Nishida et al., 1982) X1‐X9 = variabel ke 1,2,3...9 a12‐a92 = vektor Eigen ke‐ 1,2,3...,9 Hasil dan Pembahasan Persamaan ukuran dan bentuk tubuh domba garut tipe tangkas, tipe pedaging dan persilangannya Persamaan ukuran dan bentuk domba Garut tipe pedaging, tangkas dan persilangannya disajikan pada Tabel 1. Keragaman total komponen utama ke‐1 yang disetarakan dengan ukuran, terendah 39,0% pada domba tangkas Ciomas (Bogor) dan tertinggi pada tangkas Wanaraja 71,6%, sedangkan keragaman total komponen utama ke‐2 yang disetarakan dengan bentuk terendah pada tangkas Wanaraja 9,3% dan tertinggi pada pedaging sukawening 20,5%. Nilai eigen ukuran tertinggi 7,160 pada domba tangkas Wanaraja dan terendah 3,896 pada domba tangkas Ciomas, sedangkan nilai eigen bentuk tertinggi 1,696 pada domba pedaging Sukawening dan terendah 0,926 pada domba tangkas Wanaraja. Perbedaan baik bentuk maupun ukuran pada domba Garut tipe pedaging dengan tipe tangkas dan persilangganya, kemungkinan disebabkan oleh adanya seleksi kearah tipe tangkas maupun pedaging. Hal ini mendukung penelitian Mansjoer et al. (2007) yang melaporkan adanya perbedaan genetik antara domba Garut tipe tangkas dengan pedaging. Ukuran dan bentuk tubuh sering dipakai sebagai indikator penentu bangsa dan asal ternak (Itty et al., 1997). Karakteristik morfologi dapat dijadikan sebagai dasar dalam pengidentifikasian ternak pada kelompok‐kelompok ternak asli yang dapat mewakili suatu galur yang unik (Shrestha 2004) dan perbedaan karakter morfologi disebabkan oleh adanya perbedaan adaptasi terhadap kondisi ekologi 10 tempat dikembangbiakan pada domba dilaporkan oleh (Riva et al., 2003 dan Gizaw et al., 2007) dan pada kambing (Alade et al., 2008). Nilai heritabilitas parameter tubuh pada domba berkisar antara 0,26‐0,57 dengan korelasi genetik sangat tinggi terhadap bobot hidup (Janssens dan Vandepitte, 2003), selanjutnya Gizaw et al. (2008) melaporkan nilai heritabilitas parameter tubuh masing‐masing sebesar 0,36; 0,27; 0,31; 0,48 dan 0,23 untuk tinggi pundak, panjang badan, lingkar dada, panjang ekor dan lingkar ekor. Heritabilitas dan korelasi genetik yang tinggi terhadap bobot hidup mengakibatkan seleksi berdasarkan bentuk dan ukuran tubuh dapat memperbaiki pertumbuhan domba (Salako, 2006a dan Otoikhian et al., 2008). Adeyinka dan Mohammed (2006) melaporkan pada bangsa kambing (Red Sokoto dan White Borno) di Nigeria Utara terdapat korelasi yang tinggi antara bobot badan dengan parameter tubuh (lingkar dada, tinggi pundak dan panjang badan) dengan nilai korelasi berkisar 0,71 sampai 0,93. Penelitian Fajemilehin dan Salako (2008) menyimpulkan bobot badan dapat diduga melalui lingkar dada, lebar pinggang, panjang badan, tinggi pundak dan tinggi pinggang. Parameter tubuh yang berpengaruh terhadap penciri ukuran dan bentuk pada berbagai tipe domba Garut diperlihatkan pada Tabel 2. Secara umum penciri ukuran yang berkorelasi positif dengan skor ukuran yaitu linkar dada pada semua tipe domba Garut, panjang badan pada domba Margawati dan tangkas Wanaraja, dan tinggi pundak pada domba pedaging Sukawening. Penciri bentuk lebar ekor ditemukan pada domba Margawati dan pedaging Cinagara, sedangkan panjang ekor ditemukan pada pdaging Sukawening, tangkas Sukawening, tangkas Wanaraja, pedaging Wanaraja dan tangkas Ciomas. Gunawan dan Sumantri (2008) melaporkan berdasarkan hasil fenogram, domba Margawati berada dalam satu kelompok dengan domba tangkas Wanaraja, pedaging Wanaraja dan tangkas Ciomas; sedangkan domba tangkas Sukawening, pedaging Sukawening dan pedaging Cinagara berada pada satu kelompok lain. A Gunawan dkk/Animal Production 11 (1) 8‐14 0,5 Bentuk0,40,30,20,10,0-0,1-0,50,0 Ukuran0,51,0Gambar 1. Kerumunan data domba yang diamati berdasarkan skor ukuran dan bentuk Keterangan: =Margawati, = Pedaging Sukawening, ■ = Tangkas Sukawening, ◊ = Pedaging Wanaraja, ♦ = Tangkas Wanaraja, ∆ = Tangkas Ciomas, ▼ = Cinagara Perbandingan ukuran dan bentuk domba garut tangkas dan pedaging dan ukuran terjadi pada domba Margawati dan pedaging Cinagara. Kekerabatan antara kelompok domba tangkas dengan kelompok domba pedaging dan persilangannya diperlihatkan dengan kerumunan data yang bertumpang tindih pada Gambar 1, dan hasil rangkuman hubungan genetiknya diperlihatkan pada Tabel 3. Hal tersebut terjadi karena diduga keseluruhan kelompok domba yang diamati berasal dari sumber yang sama yaitu domba Garut. Kelompok domba pedaging Sukawening dan tangkas Sukawening berhubungan secara genetis atau berkerabat dekat. Hal yang sama juga ditemukan antara kelompok domba pedaging Wanaraja dan tangkas Wanaraja. Penciri bentuk, baik pada domba tangkas dan pedaging Sukawening sama yaitu panjang ekor, tetapi berkorelasi positif terhadap skor bentuk pada domba pedaging dan negatif pada domba tangkas. Penciri bentuk yang sama menunjukkan bahwa secara genetis kedua kelompok domba tersebut memiliki kesamaan. Arah korelasi yang berbeda menunjukkan bahwa program pemuliaan kedua kelompok domba tersebut telah mengalami seleksi ke arah sifat yang berbeda. Secara genetik kedua kelompok domba tersebut masih berkerabat. Kelompok domba tangkas dan pedaging Wanaraja berkerabat dekat. Perbedaan kerumunan data domba yang diamati pada Gambar 1, menunjukkan bahwa tipe pedaging pada umumnya memiliki skor ukuran yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan tipe tangkas, yang diperlihatkan dengan kerumunan data domba tangkas ke arah kanan (Sumbu X). Tipe tangkas pada umumnya memiliki skor bentuk yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan tipe pedaging, yang diperlihatkan dengan kerumunan data domba tangkas ke arah atas (Sumbu Y). Bentuk domba Margawati dan pedaging Cinagara meliputi semua bentuk domba tangkas dan pedaging yang diamati, berdasarkan kisaran skor bentuk. Everitt dan Dunn (1998) menyatakan bahwa ahli taksonomi lebih tertarik pada skor komponen bentuk karena pengaruh faktor genetik sangat besar. Berdasarkan bentuk, hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa secara genetik, semua kelompok domba yang diamati bersumber dari domba Garut. Perubahan skor bentuk dengan penciri bentuk yang berbeda diantara kelompok domba yang diamati menunjukkan bahwa program pemuliaan yang berbeda seperti untuk tujuan tangkas (tangkas Wanaraja, tangkas Sukawening dan tangkas Ciomas) berbeda dengan untuk pedaging (pedaging Wanaraja dan pedaging Sukawening). Persilangan antara tipe pedaging dengan tangkas dengan tujuan memperbesar bentuk 11 A Gunawan dkk/Animal Production 11 (1) 8‐14 Tabel 1. Persamaan ukuran dan bentuk domba garut tipe tangkas, tipe pedaging dan persilangannya di berbagai kelompok domba yang diamati Kelompok Domba Garut PersamaanUkuranMargawati Tangkas Sukawening Pedaging Sukawening Tangkas Wanaraja Pedaging Wanaraja Tangkas CiomasPedaging Cinagara 0,361X1+0,414X2+0,347X3+0,382X4+0,402X5+0,188X6+ 0,180X7+0,216X8–0,001X9 0,353X1+0,364X2+0,370X3+0,369X4+0,371X5+0,231X6+ 0,206X7+0,170X8+0,238X9 0,405X1+0,392X2+0,355X3+0,379X4+0,271X5+0,302X6–0,096X7+0,155X8+0,219X9 0,339X1+0,351X2+0,351X3+0,341X4+0,331X5+0,350X6+ 0,259X7+0,167X8+0,270X9 0,393X1+0,388X2+0,262X3+0,380X4+0,260X5+0,294X6+ 0,294X7+0,067X8+0,277X9 0,327X1+0,361X2+0,368X3+0,311X4+0,463X5+0,063X6+ 0,210X7+0,050X8+0,229X9 0,332X1+0,337X2+0,363X3+0,380X4+0,396X5+0,247X6+ 0,082X7+0,272X8+0,151X9 Bentuk0,185X1–0,016X2–0,108X3+0,014X4+0,007X5–0,391X6+ 0,039X7+0,250X8+0,825X9 0,127X1+0,056X2+0,206X3+0,112X4+0,165X5–0,510X6–0,393X7–0,659X8+0,220X9 –0,127X1+0,060X2–0,149X3+0,040X4–0,256X5–0,016X6+ 0,592X7+0,603X8+0,405X9 –0,089X1–0,063X2–0,100X3–0,238X4–0,066X5–0,103X6+ 0,082X7+0,864X8+0,374X9 0,070X1+0,017X2–0,412X3+0,073X4+0,281X5–0,377X6–0,089X7+0,747X8+0,374X9 0,071X1–0,181X2–0,086X3–0,286X4–0,019X5+0,059X6–0,463X7+0,723X8+0,348X9 0,196X1+0,362X2+0,045X3–0,133X4–0,157X5+0187X6+ 0,507X7–0,266X8–0,651X9 Keragaman Ukuran dan Total (%) bentuk Ukuran dan 4,728 dan 1,166 bentuk 47,3 dan 11,7 58,5 dan 10,1 49,0 dan 20,5 4,896 dan 1,696 71,6 dan 9,3 7,160 dan 0,929 53,8 dan 11,0 5,384 dan 1,095 39,0 dan 12,8 3,896 dan 1,284 48,0 dan 12,6 4,804 dan 1,251 X1= tinggi pundak; X2= panjang badan; X3= lebar dada; X4= dalam dada; X5= lingkar dada; X6= panjang tengkorak; X7= lebar tengkorak; X8= panjang ekor; X9= lebar ekor Tabel 2. Rangkuman penciri ukuran dan bentuk domba garut tipe pedaging garut tipe tangkas dan persilangannya Kelompok domba GarutMargawati Tangkas Sukawening Pedaging Sukawening Tangkas Wanaraja Pedaging Wanaraja Tangkas Ciomas Pedaging Cinagara Penciri Ukuran dan Korelasi terhadap Skor Ukuran Panjang badan (positif) lebar dada (positif)Tinggi pundak(positif)Panjang badan (positif), lebar dada (positif) Tinggi pundak (positif)Lingkar dada (positif)Lingkar dada (positif) 12 Penciri Bentuk dan korelasi terhadap skor bentukLebar ekor (positif)Panjang ekor (negatif)Panjang ekor (positif)Panjang ekor (positif)Panjang ekor (positif)Panjang ekor (positif)Lebar ekor (negatif)Nilai Eigen 5,845 dan 1,012 A Gunawan dkk/Animal Production 11 (1) 8‐14 Tabel 3. Rangkuman hubungan genetik antara domba garut tipe pedaging garut tipe tangkas dan persilangannya Antara kelompok Margawati Tangkas Sukawening Pedaging Sukawening Tangkas Wanaraja Margawati (M) 0 ‐ + 0 ‐ + + 0 Tangkas ‐ 0 Sukawening (TS) Pedaging Sukawening (PS) Tangkas Wanaraja (TW) Pedaging Wanaraja (PW) Tangkas Ciomas (TC) Pedaging Cinagara (PCn) ‐ + + +‐ + + + ‐ ‐ Pedaging Wanaraja Tangkas Pedaging Ciomas Cinagara 0 + + 0 ‐ ‐ ‐ 0+ ada hubungan (berkerabat dekat); ‐ tidak ada hubungan (berkerabat jauh) pedaging Sukawening, tangkas Wanaraja, Hal yang sama juga ditemukan antara pedaging Wanaraja dan tangkas Ciomas. kelompok domba pedaging Wanaraja dan Kekerabatan dekat juga ditemukan antara pedaging Sukawening; juga antara tangkas domba Margawati dan domba pedaging Wanaraja dan pedaging Sukawening. Kelompok Cinagara. Domba tangkas Ciomas berkerabat domba tangkas Sukawening juga berkerabat dekat dengan domba tangkas dan pedaging dekat dengan tangkas Wanaraja. Hal yang sama Sukawening dan terhadap domba tangkas dan juga ditemukan antara kelompok domba pedaging Wanaraja. tangkas Sukawening dan pedaging Wanaraja. Aliran genetik diduga terjadi dari kelompok Domba Margawati mempunyai kesamaan domba Margawati ke domba pedaging genetik yang tinggi dengan domba Cinagara, hal Cinagara; dan dari kelompok domba ini dimungkinkan sama‐sama merupakan Sukawening dan Wanaraja ke kelompok domba domba persilangan antara tipe pedaging tangkas Ciomas. dengan tipe tangkas. Kesimpulan Ucapan Terimakasih Parameter tubuh panjang badan, lingkar dada, lebar dada dan tinggi pundak mempunyai dampak terhadap bervariasinya skor ukuran pada tipe domba Garut, sedangkan panjang ekor dan lebar ekor mempunyai dampak terhadap score bentuk. Tumpang tindih kerumunan data domba yang diamati disebabkan sumber genetik yang sama yaitu domba Garut. 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Department of Biological Chemistry T he Sodium-potassium Pump: structure, function, regulation and pharmacology The Na, K-pump or Na/K-ATPase actively transports Na and K ions across mammalian cell membranes to establish and maintain the characteristic trans- membrane gradients of Na and K ions. This function underlies essentially all of mammalian cell physiology. For example, in the kidney, the Na, K-pump controls body Na and K balance, extracellular volume and blood pressure. In the heart the Na, K-pump controls myocyte Ca balance and cardiac contractility. The Na, K-pump is the receptor of digitalis steroids used to treat heart failure. Na/K-ATPase is a membrane protein and consists of a catalytic α subunit with ten trans-membrane segments, and a single trans-membrane glycosylated β subunit, required for stabilization. Na,K-ATPase is regulated by FXYD proteins which are auxiliary subunits. There are four isoforms of α(1-4) and three isoforms of β expressed in a tissue-specific fashion. α1 is the “housekeeping” isoform. α2 is expressed in heart and other muscle and plays a key role in maintenance of blood pressure and cardiac function. i The Na, K-ATPase is a member of the P-type ATPase family of cation pumps that use the free energy of hydrolysis of ATP to actively transport cations against their electrochemical gradients. Other P-type ATPases Fig. 1 Proposed immunoglobulin-like lobes of the β subunit ectodomain fitted into the electron density map of the Na,K-ATPase together with the α subunit Prof. Steven J.D.Karlish Dr. Daniel Tal, Dr. Adriana Katz, Dr. Einat Kapri-Pardes, Talya Belogus, Haim Haviv, Elizabeta Dinitz include sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca-ATPase, gastric cell membrane H/K- ATPase, plasma membrane Ca-ATPase, plant cell membrane H-ATPase, heavy metal-dependent ATPases etc., with selectivity for the other cations. 972 8 934 2278 FAX P-type ATPases have a common kinetic mechanism, which involves covalent phosphorylation of an active site aspartate residue by ATP, an E1P- E2P conformational change coupled to cation movement, hydrolysis of the phosphoenzme and an E2-E1 conformational change to complete the cycle. Crystal structures of sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca-ATPase, and native renal Na,K-ATPase, published recently, illuminate the basic mechanism of active cation transport. Neverthless insights into crucial features of Na,K- pump structure, function, regulation and pharmacology are lacking. Structure- crystalization and modeling We have expressed Na,K-ATPase in the methanotrophic yeast, Pichia pastoris, and purified the protein to homogeneity in a single step (Strugatsky et. al., 2003; Cohen et. al, 2005; Haviv et. al., 2007). About 1-2mg of pure, stable and functional α/β complexes in a non-ionic detergent can be prepared conveniently. Initially porcine and human α1/β1 were purified . An essential feature is that specific interactions with phosphatidyl serine (PS) are required to stabilize the protein, probably at a site near the α/β subunit interface. More recently the human α2/β1 isoform complex has been expressed, purified and stabilized (Lifshitz et. al, 2007). α2 is unstable compared to α1 due to weaker phospholipid-protein interactions and must be stabilized by a combination of PS/cholesterol. Other isoforms α and β subunits are now being expressed. Crystalization trials are being carried out. If suitable crystals are obtained it is hoped that these will lead to determination of structure of different conformations of the protein, mutants, isoforms, and complexes with FXYD proteins (see below). 972 8 934 4118 steven.karlish@weizmann.ac.il www.weizmann.ac.il The β subunit plays an essential role as a chaperone of α, and is known also to play an important role in cell-cell adhesion. However, its structure has not been well defined. We have used Fold Recognition methods to predict that the extracellular domain has an Imunoglobulin-like fold and consists of two lobes (Fig. 2). This concept has interesting implications for the physiological role of the β subunit. We are now attempting to express and purify these putative lobes of the protein (Dinitz and Karlish, unpublished). Function – E1-E2 conformational changes Crystal structures have shown that the essence of E1-E2 conformational changes is a movement of cytoplasmic domains (N, P, and A) coupled to movement of trans-membrane segments, which mediates the cation transport. However, it is not known what triggers the conformational changes. Previously we hypothesized that changes in charge on active site aspartate (D369) upon phosphorylation, are the trigger (Strugatsky et.al, 2003). We have now utilized purified fluorescein- labeled recombinant Na,K-ATPase (see Karlish, 1980) to look at effects of charge of D369 on conformational changes, by comparing wild-type and charge neutralized mutants (D369N and D369A). Steady-state and transient kinetics of fluorescence changes show that the charge on D369 is indeed a crucial feature (Belogus and Karlish, unpublished) ( Fig. 2). In another approach we have utilized the technique of Fe-catalyzed oxidative cleavage , developed to analyze spatial organization of proteins around specifically bound Fe (reviewed Karlish, 2003), to investigate divalent metal sites in the Na,K-ATPase expresed in Pichia Pastoris (Strugatsky et. al.,2005). This suggested that two Mg ions are bound to the protein in the complex with ATP-Mg, one in the P-domain (D710) and a second in the N domain (D443). Regulation- FXYD proteins (with Prof. Haim Garty, Dept. Biological Chemistry) FXYD proteins are a group of seven short single span transmembrane proteins termed after the invariant motif FXYD in their extracellular domain. FXYD proteins act as tissue-specific regulatory subunits, which adjust the kinetics properties of the Na+, K+-pump to the needs of the particular cell type or physiological state (reviewed in Garty and Karlish, 2006). We have investigated intensively the functional effects and structural interactions of FXYD 1, 2, 4 and 5 expressed in in mammalian cells and Xenopus oocytes. Most recently we have been focussing on interactions of purified FXYD1 (phospholemman, PLM). FXYD1 regulates the Na+, K+-pump in cardiac and skeletal muscle. PLM has PKA and PKC phosphorylation sites and responds to -adrenergic and other hormonal signals. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/ query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&d opt=Abstract&list_uids=16148001&query_ hl=3&itool=pubmed_docsum Selected publications Karlish, S.J. (1980) Characterization of conformational changes in (Na,K) ATPase labeled with fluorescein at the active site. J Bioenerg Biomembr, 12, 111-136. Strugatsky, D., Gottschalk, K.E., Goldshleger, R., Bibi, E. and Karlish, S.J. (2003) Expression of Na+,K+- ATPase in Pichia pastoris: analysis of wild type and D369N mutant proteins by Fe2+-catalyzed oxidative cleavage and molecular modeling. J Biol Chem, 278, 46064-46073. Karlish, S.J. (2003) Investigating the energy transduction mechanism of P-type ATPases with Fe2+-catalyzed oxidative cleavage. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 986, 39-49. Cohen, E., Goldshleger, R., Shainskaya, A., Tal, D.M., Ebel, C., le Maire, M. and Karlish, S.J. (2005) Purification of Na+,K+-ATPase expressed in Pichia pastoris reveals an essential role of phospholipid-protein interactions. J Biol Chem, 280, 16610-16618. Strugatsky, D., Gottschalk, K.E., Goldshleger, R. and Karlish, S.J. (2005) D443 of the N domain of Na+,K+-ATPase interacts with the ATP-Mg2+ complex, possibly via a second Mg2+ ion. Biochemistry, 44, 15961-15969. Garty, H. and Karlish, S.J. (2006) Role of FXYD proteins in ion transport. Annu Rev Physiol, 68, 431-459. Lifshitz, Y., Lindzen, M., Garty, H. and Karlish, S.J. (2006) Functional interactions of phospholemman (PLM) (FXYD1) with Na+,K+- ATPase. Purification of alpha1/ beta1/PLM complexes expressed in Pichia pastoris. J Biol Chem, 281, 15790-15799. Haviv, H., Cohen, E., Lifshitz, Y., Tal, D.M., Goldshleger, R. and Karlish, S.J. (2007) Stabilization of Na(+),K(+)- ATPase purified from Pichia pastoris membranes by specific interactions with lipids. Biochemistry, 46, 12855-12867. Lifshitz, Y., Petrovich, E., Haviv, H., Goldshleger, R., Tal, D.M., Garty, H. and Karlish, S.J. (2007) Purification ii Life Science Open Day ∙ 2008 ∙ Weizmann Institute of Science Fig. 2 Stopped-flow fluorimeter traces of the E2(Rb)-E1Na conformational transitions, showing a large reduction in rate for the D369N and D369A mutants compared to WT. FYYD1 has been expressed in Pichia Pastoris and reconstituted with purified human α1/β1 and α2/β1 complexes to produce α1/β1/FXYD1 and α2/ β1/FXYD1 complexes (Lifshitz et. al., 2006;Lifshitz et. al., 2007). The functional properties of α1/β1/FXYD1 (phosphorylated or not at Ser68) have been characterized. A striking feature of the α1/β1/FXYD1 and α2/β1/FXYD1 complexes is that they are highly thermally stabilized by comparison with α1/β1 and α2/β1 complexes (Lifshitz et. al., 2007). FXYD1 stabilizes the phosphatidyl serine-α/β interaction. More recently we have expressed FXYD1 in E.Coli purified the protein and reconstituted α1/β1/FXYD1 complexes (Lifshitz and Karlish, unpublished, in collaboration with the Weizmann Institute Proteomics Center). The purified α1/β1/FXYD1 complex will be used for crystalization trials and detailed functional characterization. Similar experiments with FXYD2 have been initiated. Pharmacology- an α2-selective cardiac glycoside (CG)? Plant-derived digitalis steroids have been used for over two hundred years to increase the force of contraction of the heart (positive inotropy), but they are dangerous drugs and can induce fatal arrhythmias. In addition it is known that digitalis-like steroids are produced in mammals in a manner similar to steroid hormones, and are intimately involved in regulation of blood pressure and cardiac hypertrophy. Thus, there is great interest in the mechanism of action of endogenous CG’s and, development of safer CG’s. One way to reduce digitalis toxicity could be to develop an inhibitor selective for the α2 isoform. α1,α2 α3 isoforms are all expressed in humans hearts, but α1 is the predominant isoform. We are utilizing the human α1β1 and α2β1 complexes purified from P.pastoris membranes to try and develop an α2-selective inhibitor. This involves a combination of biochemical screening, synthetic chemistry and molecular modeling. of the human alpha2 Isoform of Na,K- ATPase expressed in Pichia pastoris. Stabilization by lipids and FXYD1. Biochemistry, 46, 14937-14950. Acknowledgements SJDK is the William Smithburg Professor of Biochemistry. This work is supported by the Israel Science foundation and German-Israel foundation (GIF). INTERNAL support This work is supported by the Minerva foundation (Germany), Weizmann Institute Renal Research Fund, Mauerberger foundation (South Africa) , and Johnson and Johnson/Yeda. iii

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Department ofBiological ChemistryTThe Na, K-pump or Na/K-ATPaseactively transports Na and K ions acrossmammalian cell membranes to establishand maintain the characteristic trans-membrane gradients of Na and K ions.This function underlies essentially all ofmammalian cell physiology. For example,in the kidney, the Na, K-pump controlsbody Na and K balance, extracellularvolume and blood pressure. In the heartthe Na, K-pump controls myocyte Cabalance and cardiac contractility. TheNa, K-pump is the receptor of digitalissteroids used to treat heart failure.Na/K-ATPase is a membrane protein andconsists of a catalytic α subunit with tentrans-membrane segments, and a singletrans-membrane glycosylated β subunit,required for stabilization. Na,K-ATPaseis regulated by FXYD proteins whichare auxiliary subunits. There are fourisoforms of α(1-4) and three isoforms ofβ expressed in a tissue-specific fashion.α1 is the “housekeeping” isoform. α2 isexpressed in heart and other muscleand plays a key role in maintenance ofblood pressure and cardiac function.iThe Na, K-ATPase is a member ofthe P-type ATPase family of cationpumps that use the free energy ofhydrolysis of ATP to actively transportcations against their electrochemicalgradients.Other P-type ATPasesFig. 1 Proposed immunoglobulin-like lobesof the β subunit ectodomain fitted into theelectron density map of the Na,K-ATPasetogether with the α subunitProf. Steven J.D.KarlishDr. Daniel Tal, Dr. Adriana Katz,Dr. Einat Kapri-Pardes,Talya Belogus, Haim Haviv,Elizabeta DinitzincludesarcoplasmicreticulumCa-ATPase, gastric cell membrane H/K-ATPase, plasma membrane Ca-ATPase,plant cell membrane H-ATPase, heavymetal-dependent ATPases etc., withselectivity for the other cations.972 8 934 2278FAXP-type ATPases have a commonkinetic mechanism, which involvescovalent phosphorylation of an activesite aspartate residue by ATP, an E1P-E2P conformational change coupledto cation movement, hydrolysis ofthe phosphoenzme and an E2-E1conformational change to complete thecycle. Crystal structures of sarcoplasmicreticulum Ca-ATPase, and native renalNa,K-ATPase,publishedrecently,illuminate the basic mechanism ofactive cation transport. Neverthlessinsights into crucial features of Na,K-pump structure, function, regulationand pharmacology are lacking.Structure- crystalization andmodelingWe have expressed Na,K-ATPasein the methanotrophic yeast, Pichiapastoris, and purified the proteinto homogeneity in a single step(Strugatsky et. al., 2003; Cohen et.al, 2005; Haviv et. al., 2007). About1-2mg of pure, stable and functionalα/β complexes in a non-ionic detergentcan be prepared conveniently. Initiallyporcine and human α1/β1 were purified. An essential feature is that specificinteractions with phosphatidyl serine(PS) are required to stabilize theprotein, probably at a site near theα/β subunit interface. More recentlythe human α2/β1 isoform complexhas been expressed, purified andstabilized (Lifshitz et. al, 2007). α2 isunstable compared to α1 due to weakerphospholipid-protein interactions andmust be stabilized by a combination ofPS/cholesterol. Other isoforms α and βsubunits are now being expressed.Crystalization trials are being carriedout. If suitable crystals are obtainedit is hoped that these will lead todetermination of structure of differentconformations of the protein, mutants,isoforms, and complexes with FXYDproteins (see below).972 8 934 4118steven.karlish@weizmann.ac.ilwww.weizmann.ac.il The β subunit plays an essential roleas a chaperone of α, and is known alsoto play an important role in cell-celladhesion. However, its structure hasnot been well defined. We have usedFold Recognition methods to predictthat the extracellular domain has anImunoglobulin-like fold and consistsof two lobes (Fig. 2). This concepthas interesting implications for thephysiological role of the β subunit. Weare now attempting to express andpurify these putative lobes of the protein(Dinitz and Karlish, unpublished).Function – E1-E2 conformationalchangesCrystal structures have shown thatthe essence of E1-E2 conformationalchanges is a movement of cytoplasmicdomains (N, P, and A) coupled tomovementoftrans-membranesegments, which mediates the cationtransport. However, it is not known whattriggers the conformational changes.Previously we hypothesized that changesin charge on active site aspartate(D369) upon phosphorylation, are thetrigger (Strugatsky et.al, 2003). Wehave now utilized purified fluorescein-labeledrecombinantNa,K-ATPase(see Karlish, 1980) to look at effectsof charge of D369 on conformationalchanges, by comparing wild-type andcharge neutralized mutants (D369Nand D369A). Steady-state and transientkinetics of fluorescence changes showthat the charge on D369 is indeed acrucial feature (Belogus and Karlish,unpublished) ( Fig. 2).In another approach we have utilizedthe technique of Fe-catalyzed oxidativecleavage , developed to analyzespatial organization of proteins aroundspecifically bound Fe (reviewed Karlish,2003), to investigate divalent metal sitesin the Na,K-ATPase expresed in PichiaPastoris (Strugatsky et. al.,2005). Thissuggested that two Mg ions are boundto the protein in the complex withATP-Mg, one in the P-domain (D710)and a second in the N domain (D443).Regulation- FXYD proteins(with Prof. Haim Garty, Dept.Biological Chemistry)FXYD proteins are a group of sevenshort single span transmembraneproteins termed after the invariant motifFXYD in their extracellular domain.FXYD proteins act as tissue-specificregulatory subunits, which adjust thekinetics properties of the Na+, K+-pumpto the needs of the particular celltype or physiological state (reviewedin Garty and Karlish, 2006). We haveinvestigated intensively the functionaleffects and structural interactionsof FXYD 1, 2, 4 and 5 expressed inin mammalian cells and Xenopusoocytes. Most recently we have beenfocussing on interactions of purifiedFXYD1 (phospholemman, PLM). FXYD1regulates the Na+, K+-pump in cardiacand skeletal muscle. PLM has PKAand PKC phosphorylation sites andresponds to -adrenergic and otherhormonal signals.http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16148001&query_hl=3&itool=pubmed_docsumSelected publicationsKarlish, S.J. (1980) Characterization ofconformational changes in (Na,K)ATPase labeled with fluorescein atthe active site. J Bioenerg Biomembr,12, 111-136.Strugatsky, D., Gottschalk, K.E.,Goldshleger, R., Bibi, E. and Karlish,S.J. (2003) Expression of Na+,K+-ATPase in Pichia pastoris: analysis ofwild type and D369N mutant proteinsby Fe2+-catalyzed oxidative cleavageand molecular modeling. J Biol Chem,278, 46064-46073.Karlish, S.J. (2003) Investigating theenergy transduction mechanism ofP-type ATPases with Fe2+-catalyzedoxidative cleavage. Ann N Y Acad Sci,986, 39-49.Cohen, E., Goldshleger, R., Shainskaya,A., Tal, D.M., Ebel, C., le Maire, M.and Karlish, S.J. (2005) Purificationof Na+,K+-ATPase expressed in Pichiapastoris reveals an essential role ofphospholipid-protein interactions. JBiol Chem, 280, 16610-16618.Strugatsky, D., Gottschalk, K.E.,Goldshleger, R. and Karlish, S.J.(2005) D443 of the N domain ofNa+,K+-ATPase interacts with theATP-Mg2+ complex, possibly via asecond Mg2+ ion. Biochemistry, 44,15961-15969.Garty, H. and Karlish, S.J. (2006) Roleof FXYD proteins in ion transport.Annu Rev Physiol, 68, 431-459.Lifshitz, Y., Lindzen, M., Garty, H.and Karlish, S.J. (2006) Functionalinteractions of phospholemman(PLM) (FXYD1) with Na+,K+-ATPase. Purification of alpha1/beta1/PLM complexes expressed inPichia pastoris. J Biol Chem, 281,15790-15799.Haviv, H., Cohen, E., Lifshitz, Y., Tal,D.M., Goldshleger, R. and Karlish, S.J.(2007) Stabilization of Na(+),K(+)-ATPase purified from Pichia pastorismembranes by specific interactionswith lipids. Biochemistry, 46,12855-12867.Lifshitz, Y., Petrovich, E., Haviv, H.,Goldshleger, R., Tal, D.M., Garty, H.and Karlish, S.J. (2007) PurificationiiLife Science Open Day ∙ 2008 ∙ Weizmann Institute of ScienceFig. 2 Stopped-flow fluorimeter traces ofthe E2(Rb)-E1Na conformational transitions,showing a large reduction in rate for theD369N and D369A mutants compared toWT.FYYD1 has been expressed in PichiaPastoris and reconstituted with purifiedhuman α1/β1 and α2/β1 complexesto produce α1/β1/FXYD1 and α2/β1/FXYD1 complexes (Lifshitz et.al., 2006;Lifshitz et. al., 2007). Thefunctional properties of α1/β1/FXYD1(phosphorylated or not at Ser68) havebeen characterized. A striking featureof the α1/β1/FXYD1 and α2/β1/FXYD1complexes is that they are highlythermally stabilized by comparison withα1/β1 and α2/β1 complexes (Lifshitzet. al., 2007). FXYD1 stabilizes thephosphatidyl serine-α/β interaction.More recently we have expressedFXYD1 in E.Coli purified the protein andreconstituted α1/β1/FXYD1 complexes(Lifshitz and Karlish, unpublished,in collaboration with the WeizmannInstitute Proteomics Center). Thepurified α1/β1/FXYD1 complex willbe used for crystalization trials anddetailed functional characterization.Similar experiments with FXYD2 havebeen initiated. Pharmacology- an α2-selectivecardiac glycoside (CG)?Plant-derived digitalis steroids havebeen used for over two hundred yearsto increase the force of contraction ofthe heart (positive inotropy), but theyare dangerous drugs and can inducefatal arrhythmias. In addition it is knownthat digitalis-like steroids are producedin mammals in a manner similar tosteroid hormones, and are intimatelyinvolved in regulation of blood pressureand cardiac hypertrophy. Thus, thereis great interest in the mechanismof action of endogenous CG’s and,development of safer CG’s.One way to reduce digitalis toxicitycould be to develop an inhibitorselective for the α2 isoform. α1,α2 α3isoforms are all expressed in humanshearts, but α1 is the predominantisoform. We are utilizing the humanα1β1 and α2β1 complexes purifiedfrom P.pastoris membranes to try anddevelop an α2-selective inhibitor. Thisinvolves a combination of biochemicalscreening, synthetic chemistry andmolecular modeling. of the human alpha2 Isoform of Na,K-ATPase expressed in Pichia pastoris.Stabilization by lipids and FXYD1.Biochemistry, 46, 14937-14950.AcknowledgementsSJDK is the William Smithburg Professorof Biochemistry. This work is supportedby the Israel Science foundation andGerman-Israel foundation (GIF). INTERNAL supportThis work is supported by the Minervafoundation (Germany), WeizmannInstitute Renal Research Fund,Mauerberger foundation (South Africa) ,and Johnson and Johnson/Yeda.iii

SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP

2011-12-14T04:37:00.002-08:00

MOLECULE OF THE MONTH:www.pdb.orginfo@rcsb.org10.2210/rcsb_pdb/mom_2009_10Our bodies use a lot of energy. ATP(adenosine triphosphate) is one ofthe major currencies of energy inour cells; it is continually used andrebuilt throughout the day.Amazingly, if you add up theamount of ATP that is built eachday, it would roughly equal theweight of your entire body. ThisATP is spent in many ways: topower muscles, to make sure thatenzymes perform the properreactions, to heat your body.The lion's share, however, goes tothe protein pictured here: roughlya third of the ATP made by ourcells is spent to power thesodium-potassium pump.inside the cellcell membraneoutside the cellPumping IonsThe sodium-potassiumpump (PDB entries 2zxe and3b8e) is found in our cellular mem-branes, where it is in charge of generating a gra-dient of ions. It continually pumps sodiumions out of the cell and potassium ions into thecell, powered by ATP. For each ATP that is bro-ken down, it moves 3 sodium ions out and 2potassium ions in. As the cell is depleted ofsodium, this creates an electrical gradient and aconcentration gradient, both of which are putto use for many tasks.About theRCSB PDB Molecule of the MonthUsing selected molecules from the PDB archive,each feature includes anintroduction to the structure and function of themolecule, a discussion of its relevance to humanhealth and welfare, andsuggestions for viewing andaccessing further details.The RCSB PDB Molecule of the Month isread by students, teachers, and scientistsworldwide at www.pdb.org.This October 2009 edition was written andillustrated by David S. Goodsell(RCSB PDB and The ScrippsResearch Institute).Amazing GradientsThe most spectacular use of this gradient is in thetransmission of nerve signals. Our nerve axonsdeplete themselves of sodium ions, then use spe-cial voltage-gated sodium channels to allow theions to rush back in during a nerve impulse. Thesodium-potassium pump has the job of keepingthe axon ready for the next signal. The gradientalso helps control the osmotic pressure insidecells, and powers a variety of other pumps thatlink the flow of sodium ions with the transport ofother molecules, such as calcium ions or glucose.Medicine for the HeartA traditional cure for heart failureworks by blocking the sodium-potassiumpump. Plant toxins like digitalis and ouabain(PDB entry 3a3y) and similar toxins from poi-sonous toads, collectively known as cardioton-ic steroids, can be used in small doses to slowthe pumping of ions. As the level of sodiumions builds up inside the cell, this slows thesodium-calcium exchanger, leading to a buildup of calcium, which ultimately increases theforce of contraction of the heart muscle.Recent research has revealed that our own cellsmake molecules similar to these toxins, butonly in low concentrations to regulate theaction of our sodium-potassium pumps.P-type PumpsThe sodium-potassium pump (shown above-and n the reverse from PDB entry 2zxe) is oneof a large class of P-type ATPase pumps, socalled because they all incorporate a phos-phate-linked intermediate in their mechanism.Several other examples are currently availablein the PDB. Many structures of the calciumpump are available (PDB entry 1su4 is pic-SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMPRCSB Protein Data BankThe Protein Data Bank (PDB) is thesingle worldwide repository for theprocessing and distribution of 3Dstructure data of large molecules ofproteins and nucleic acids. The RCSBPDB is operated by Rutgers, The StateUniversity of New Jersey and the SanDiego Supercomputer Center and theSkaggs School of Pharmacy andPharmaceutical Sciences at the Universityof California, San Diego–two membersof the Research Collaboratory forStructural Bioinformatics (RCSB).It is supported by funds from theNational Science Foundation, theNational Institute of General MedicalSciences, the Office of Science,Department of Energy, the NationalLibrary of Medicine, the NationalCancer Institute, the National Instituteof Neurological Disorders and Strokeand the National Institute of Diabetes& Digestive & Kidney Diseases.The RCSB PDB is a member ofthe worldwide PDB(wwPDB; www.wwpdb.org).Additional reading aboutSodium-Potassium Pumpsodium-potassiumpumpcalcium pumptured on the reverse), showing how these pumpsundergo large conformational changes through thepumping cycle. Other examples include the protonpump found in plant cell membranes (PDB entry3b8c), and a proton-potassium pump that acidifiesthe stomach (PDB entry 3ixz, not shown here). Theproton pump and the calcium pump are each com-posed of a single chain, whereas the pumps thattransport potassium typically have a second small-er chain, shown here in turquoise. The structure ofthe sodium-potassium pump also has a third regu-latory chain, shown here in purple.Exploring the StructureA. Y. Bagrov, J. I. Shapiro, and O.V. Fedrova (2009) Endogenouscardiotonic steroids: physiology,pharmacology, and novel therapeu-tic targets. PharmacologicalReviews 61, 9-38.L. D. Faller (2008) Mechanisticstudies of sodium pump. Archivesof Biochemistry and Biophysics476, 12-21.I. Prassas and E. P. Diamandis(2008) Novel therapeutic applica-tions of cardiac glycosides. NatureReviews Drug Discovery 7, 926-935.Calculation of the amountof ATP used each day:M. J. Buono and F. W. Kolkhorst(2001) Estimating ATP resynthesisduring a marathon run: a methodto introduce metabolism. Advancesin Physiology Education 25, 70-71.proton pumpThe ATP then phosphorylates the pump and itshifts in shape, creating an opening towards theoutside of the cell. The sodium is released and twopotassium ions are picked up. Finally, the phos-phate is cleaved off and the pump shifts back,releasing the potassium inside the cell. The struc-ture shown here has captured the pump in the mid-dle of the cycle, when the pump has just picked upits payload of potassium ions. The two potassiumions (shown here in green) are surrounded on allsides by oxygen atoms from the protein.Topics for Further Exploration1. The sodium-potassium pump is able to distinguishsodium ions from potassium ions. How might aprotein distinguish between these two ions, orbetween other types of ions?2. The portion of the sodium-potassium pump thatcrosses the membrane is composed of a bundleof alpha helices. Many other membrane-boundproteins have similar bundles of alpha helices.Can you find other examples in the PDB, andwhy is this a particularly effective approach forbuilding membrane-bound proteins?References:2zxe: T. Shinoda, H. Ogawa, F. Cornelius, C. Toyoshima (2009) Crystal structureof the sodium-potassium pump at 2.4 A resolution. Nature 459, 446-450The sodium-potassium pump (PDB entry 2zxe) isa protein machine with many moving parts. Thehelices that run through the membrane containthe binding sites for the sodium ions and potassi-um ions, and the large lobes that stick into thecytoplasm contain the machinery for linking thecleavage of ATP to the pumping cycle. The typicalcycle occurs in several steps. First, the pump bindsATP and three sodium ions from the cytoplasm.3b8e: J. P. Morth, B. P. Pedersen, M. S. Toustrup-Jensen, T. L. Sorensen, J. Petersen,J. P. Andersen, B. Vilsen, P.Nissen (2007) Crystal structure of the sodium-potassiumpump. Nature 450, 1043-10493a3y: H. Ogawa, T. Shinoda, F. Cornelius, C. Toyoshima (2009) Crystal structureof the sodium-potassium pump (Na+,K+-ATPase) with bound potassium andouabain. Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.USA 106, 13742-137471su4: C. Toyoshima, M. Nakasako, H. Nomura, H. Ogawa (2000) Structural biol-ogy. Pumping ions. Nature 405, 647-6553b8c: B. P Pedersen, M. J. Buch-Pedersen, J. P Morth, M. G. Palmgren, P Nissen (2007)...Crystal structure of the plasma membrane proton pump. Nature 450, 1111-11143ixz: K. Abe, K. Tani, T. Nishizawa, Y. Fujiyoshi (2009) Inter-subunit interaction ofgastric H+,K+-ATPase prevents reverse reaction of the transport cycle. Embo J. 28,1637-1643

Doe productivity of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats and factors affecting them in Indonesia

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Journal of Agriculture and Rural Developmentin the Tropics and SubtropicsSupplement 78Akhmad SodiqHerausgeber der Schriftenreihe:Deutsches Institut für Tropische und Subtropische Landwirtschaft GmbH,WitzenhausenGesellschaft für Nachhaltige Entwicklung mbH, WitzenhausenInstitut für tropische Landwirtschaft e.V., LeipzigUniversität Kassel, Fachbereich Ökologische Agrarwissenschaften (FB11),WitzenhausenVerband der Tropenlandwirte Witzenhausen e.V., WitzenhausenRedaktion:Hans HemannKorrektes ZitatSodiq, Akhmad , 2004: Doe productivity of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats andfactors affecting them in Indonesia, Beiheft Nr. 78 zu Journal of Agriculture and RuralDevelopment in the Tropics and Subtropics, kassel university press GmbHBibliografische Information Der Deutschen BibliothekDie Deutsche Bibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der DeutschenNationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet überhttp://dnb.ddb.de abrufbarVerlag:kassel university press GmbHwww.upress.uni-kassel.deZugl.: Kassel, Univ., Diss. 2004ISSN: 1613 - 8422ISBN: 3-89958-074-5URN: urn:nbn:de:0002-07741Dissertation (Dr. agr.) in the Department of International Animal Husbandry, Facultyof Ecological Agricultural Sciences, University of Kassel, GermanyGutachter:Prof. Dr. Ezzat S. TawfikProf. Dr. Dr. h.c. Udo ter MeulenDisputation: 15 March 2004Umschlaggestaltung: Jochen Roth, Melchior v. Wallenberg, KasselDruck und Verarbeitung:Unidruckerei der Universitäts KasselMai 2004vPREFACEIn Indonesia nearly 99% of small ruminants like goats and sheep are found inthe hands of smallholders. This fact indicates an important role for smallholders.The contribution of goats within the total farming income for small ruminantkeepers is substantial. Small ruminant production plays an important role as anincome generating activity, particularly for smallholders, whilst being a source ofanimal protein to support the national programme.The major breeds of goats in Indonesia are the Kacang (Lokal) goat andPeranakan Etawah. Kacang is a local breed of goat found in Indonesia. It iscalled locally „Kambing Kacang“ or Kambing Lokal“ or Kambing Jawa“. Thepopulation of Kambing Kacang is widely distributed over the whole archipelagoand adapted to a wide range of management conditions and feeding regimes.Peranakan Etawah goats originally descend from crossings between theKacang (Lokal) with Etwah (Jamnapari) goats (imported from India). Animals ofthis population are distinclty different from the Kacang goats.The general aim in the management of an animal production unit is to increasethe productivity. This goal may be achieved by one of, or as a combination oftwo approaches. These are:· to improve average production by improving aspects of management so thatthe genetic potential of the animals may be expressed as fully as possible,· to change the production potential of the animal population by theintroduction of new genotypes.The purposes of the studies are:Ø To find out the production and reproduction levels of the two goat breedsunder the village production system.Ø To identify factors affecting the production and reproduction level of thetwo goat breeds.Mr. Akhmad Sodiq started his research with goats in December 1999 andfinished it with his thesis in March 2004.Prof. Dr. Ezzat S. TawfikviACKNOWLEDGMENTSI wish to express my deepest appreciation to my supervisor Prof. Dr. Ezzat S.Tawfik and Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Udo ter Meulen for their continuous constructiveguidance, suggestions, correction and encouragement. I am thankful toProf. Dr. Soedito Adjisoedarmo for his supervision and encouraging guidanceduring the research period. Grateful thanks are also extended to Ms. PennyPohlner for the language corrections of the manuscripts. I would also like tothank the president of the committee for doctoral studies for the comments andsuggestions of the topic for my dissertation.I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Dean and all members of theteam Quality Under Graduate (QUE) project of the Department of AnimalProduction, Jenderal Soedirman University for providing me the scholarshipduring my post-graduate study. The cooperation between Indonesia (Prof. Dr.Edi Guhardja, Prof. Dr. Eddie Gunardi, Dr. Andriyono, Dr. Dyah) and Göttingen(Dr. Diethard Mai, Dr. Uwe Muss, Ingrid Howe, and Myrtle Seepershad) for thepost-graduate study program, to whom I am extremely grateful.I sincerely appreciate the members of “Kelompok Tani Ternak Kambing” inKaligesing-Purworejo and Gundi-Grobogan for assisting me in the fieldwork.Thanks also go to my colleagues at the Department of International AnimalHusbandry, the University of Kassel for kind cooperation.Finally, I would like to give special recognition to my wife, Susiati, S.Ag., mydaughter, Endang Purwati, and my father (alm.) and mother and my big familyin Ngaliyan and Pasir Wetan, for their support throughout my period of post-graduate study in Germany.Akhmad SodiqviiLIST OF CONTENTS1 INTRODUCTION 92 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 122.1 Litter Size 122.2 Weight at Birth and at Weaning and Growth Rate till Weaning 142.3 Survival Rate till Weaning 192.4 Kidding Interval 222.5 Doe Productivity Index 252.6 Body Condition Score 272.7 Leg Conformation Index 313 METHODOLOGY 333.1 Study Location 333.2 Animal Types 333.3 Data Collection and Procedures 363.4 Statistical Data Analysis 394 RESULTS 454.1 Reproduction Traits of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah Does 454.1.1 Type of Birth 454.1.2 Litter Weight at Birth 464.1.3 Litter Weight at Weaning 484.1.4 Survival Rate till Weaning 504.1.5 Kidding Interval 524.1.6 Doe Productivity Index 534.2 Production Traits of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah Kids 564.2.1 Birth Weight 564.2.2 Weaning Weight 584.2.3 Growth Rate till Weaning 614.2.4 Body Condition Score 624.2.5 Leg Conformation Index 66viii5 DISCUSSION 695.1 Reproduction Traits of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah Does 695.1.1 Type of Birth 695.1.2 Litter Weight at Birth 705.1.3 Litter Weight at Weaning 715.1.4 Survival Rate till Weaning 725.1.5 Kidding Interval 745.1.6 Doe Productivity Index 765.2 Production Traits of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah Kids 795.2.1 Birth Weight 795.2.2 Weaning Weight 815.2.3 Growth Rate till Weaning 835.2.4 Body Condition Score 855.2.5 Leg Conformation Index 876 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 897 RINGKASAN DAN KESIMPULAN 96REFERENCES 103CURRICULUM VITAE 119DECLARATION 120ixLIST OF TABLESTableTableTableTable1:2:3:4:Table 5:Table 6:Table 7:Table 8:Table 9:Table 10:Table11:Table 12:Table 13:Table 14:Table 15:Table 16:Table 17:Table 18:Body condition scoring of goatMatrix of factors affecting reproduction traits under studyMatrix of factors affecting productivity traits under studyLeast squares analysis of variance for type of birth of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goatsLeast squares analysis of variance for litter weight at birth ofKacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsLeast squares means + standard errors of factors affectinglitter weight at birth of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsLeast squares analysis of variance for litter weight at weaningof Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsLeast squares means + standard errors of factors affectinglitter weight at weaning of Kacang and Peranakan EtawahgoatsLeast squares analysis of variance for survival rate tillweaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsLeast squares means + standard errors of factors affectingsurvival rate till weaning of Kacang and Peranakan EtawahgoatsLeast squares analysis of variance for kidding interval ofKacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsLeast squares means + standard errors of factors affectingkidding interval of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsLeast squares analysis of variance for doe productivity indexof Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsLeast squares analysis of variance for birth weight of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goatsLeast squares analysis of variance for weaning weight ofKacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsLeast squares analysis of variance for growth rate tillweaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsLeast squares variance analysis of body condition score ofKacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsLeast squares analysis of variance for leg conformation indexof Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats384040454747484950515253545658616366xLIST OF FIGURESFigureFigureFigureFigureFigure1:2:3:4:5:Figure 6:Figure 7:Figure 8:Figure 9:Figure 10:Figure 11:Figure 12:Figure 13:Figure 14:Figure 15:Figure 16:Figure 17:Doe of Kacang goatKid of Kacang goatDoe of Peranakan Etawah goatKid of Peranakan Etawah goatAverage litter size of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats at different paritiesAverage doe productivity index of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats at different paritiesAverage doe productivity index of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats at different types of birthAverage birth weight at of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats at different parities and sexAverage birth weight of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsat different types of birthAverage weaning weight at of Kacang Peranakan Etawahgoats at different paritiesAverage weaning weight of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats at different types of birth and sexAverage growth rate till weaning of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats at different paritiesAverage growth rate till weaning of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats at different types of birth and sexAverage body condition score of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats at different parities and types of birthAverage body condition score of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats at different types of birth and sexAverage leg conformation index of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats at different parities and types of birthAverage leg conformation index of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats at different types of birth and sex3434353546555557575960626264656767111 INTRODUCTIONSmall ruminants like sheep and goats are important for a larger part of thetropical rural population (Tawfik, 2001) and especially for Indonesia (Sabraniand Knipcheer, 1982). Goats are kept as an important component of farmingactivities, particularly by smallholders. Nearly ninety nine percent of smallruminants in Indonesia are found in the hands of smallholders. This factindicates an important role for smallholders. Small ruminants’ production playsan important role as an income generating activity, particularly for smallholders,whilst being a source of animal protein to support the national programme(Soedjana, 1993). The biological and economic functions of goats have longbeen recognized. Besides producing animal products, they also provide manureto maintain soil fertility (Suradisastra, 1993). The contribution of goats within thetotal farming income for the holders of small goats is substantial (Sabrani andSiregar, 1981).The existing husbandry management systems in tropical countries, such asIndonesia, are normally the result of hundreds of years of tradition (Chaniago,1993). Goats are kept primarily for meat production, so production traits ofinterest are the number of young weaned per breeding female per year andtheir growth rate (Bradford, 1993). The number of goats raised per farm isrelatively small (Soedjana, 1993) about two to ten head (Adjisoedarmo, 1991;Sodiq et al., 2001). The common productive systems for small ruminants inIndonesia are (1) cut and carry, where forage and other feeds are brought tocontinuously housed animals (Djajanegara and Setiadi, 1991; Sodiq et al.,1998); and (2) grazing under tree crops, along roadsides and in temporarily idlecroplands, etc. (Bradford, 1993).The majority of goats in Indonesia is concentrated on the Island of Java (DGLS,1999), the major breeds being the Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goat(Djajanegara and Setiadi, 1991; Edey, 1983). Kacang is a local (indigenous)breed of goat found in Indonesia. It is called locally ‘Kambing Kacang’. Kacanggoats are relatively small with a compact body frame, have erect ears and short12horns in both sexes. Most of the animals are black and brown; although thepattern of colour is not necessarily uniform. This population is adapted to a widerange of management conditions and feeding regimes in the region. PeranakanEtawah goats are descended originally from crossings between the Kacang withEtawah (Jamnapari) goats. Generally known simply as PE goat, animals of thispopulation are distinctly different from the Kacang goats. They have a largerbody frame, long hanging ears, a convex face and larger horns.The general aim in the management of an animal production unit is to increasethe productivity. This goal may be achieved by one of, or as a combination of,two approaches (Bray, 1983). These are: (a) To improve average production byimproving aspects of management so that the genetic potential of the animalsmay be expressed as fully as possible, and (b) to change the productionpotential of the animal population by the introduction of new genotypes.The Indonesian breeds of goats are small and relatively slow growing.Consequently there has been some interest in introduction of other genotypes,for example, the Etawah goat has already been widely crossed with the Kacanggoat.Genetic improvement programmes may be based on crossbreedingbetween local breeds or between local and exotic stock. The introduction ofspecialized breeds for meat or milk productivity may be a rapid solution forincreasing productivity (Edey, 1983; Tawfik, 2001). The biological productivity oflivestock is determined by the fundamental processes of reproduction, growthand development, and death (Lindsay et al., 1982; O’Shea, 1983; Lawrenceand Fowler, 1997; Bearden and Fuquay, 2000).Increasing the productivity of goats in Indonesia will enhance nationaldevelopment planning for increasing rural income and also increasing the levelof protein consumption (Bradford, 1993). Key production traits considered forimproving productivity in meat goats are adaptability and productivity conditions,reproductive rate, growth rate and carcass value (Gipson, 1996; McGowan andNurce, 2000; Luginbuhl, 2002).13The objectives of this study are: (1) To find out the production and reproductionlevels of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats under the Village ProductionSystem. The doe reproduction traits studied were: litter size, litter weight atbirth, litter weight at weaning, survival rate till weaning, kidding interval, and doeproductivity index. The production traits of the kids studied were: birth weight,growth rate till weaning, weaning weight, body condition score, and legconformation; (2) To identify factors affecting the production and reproductionlevel of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats under the Village ProductionSystem. Some factors were examined in this study: parity, type of birth, sex,birth weight, litter weight at birth and at weaning.142REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE2.1 Litter Size (Type of Birth)Litter size was defined as the number of kids born per kidding doe (Alexandre etal., 1999 and Steele, 1996). Litter size born or prolificacy has a very significantinfluence on reproduction efficiency. A number of biological factors influencesthe actual litter size in a flock of goats (Lindsay et al., 1982; O’Shea, 1983;Bearden and Fuquay, 2001).The age or parity of the doe and year or seasonal effects’ influences have beenstudied with respect to the litter size under tropical conditions. Urdaneta et al.(2000) working on Alpine and Nubians goats in Venezuela found that prolificacywas significantly affected by the year of kidding. Mellado et al. (1991) studies onnative goats in Mexico demonstrated that the litter size was positively correlatedwith parity with mean litter size for the first, second, third and fourth parity at 1.5,1.5, 1.8 and 1.8 kids per kidding.Amoah and Gelaye (1990) studies on reproductive performance in South Pacificcountries concluded that the litter size (LS) was related to doe age (A): LS =1.8402 + 0.0002A and parity (P): LS = 1.2290 + 0.121P. Litter size variedamong breeds. Results of Awemu et al. (1999) showed that parity, season andyear in Nigeria significantly influenced litter size at birth, whereas at weaning,parity and year had important influences. Litter size increased with parity, withthe largest litters at the fifth parity. Litter size for the Red Sakoto does in 1, 2, 3,4, 5 and 6 parity were 1.8, 2.0, 1.8, 1.8, 1.9 and 1.8, respectively.Awemu et al. (2002) working with Red Sokoto goats in Nigeria found that littersize at birth (1.8 kids) was significantly affected by parity. Litter size increasedby parity, with the largest litter at the fifth parity. Crepaldi et al. (1999) reportedthat prolificacy of Alpine goats in Italy was affected by parity. Das and Sendalo(1990) working on meat goats in Malya, Tanzania, reported that prolificacytends to increase from the first parity and a reduction in the sixth parity.15Litter size at birth was affected by parity with the first kidding being the smallest(Song et al., 2001). The trend of the effect of season on litter size at birth wasnot clear. These results were similar to those published by other workers(Galina et al., 1995; Odubate, 1996, Silva et al., 1998). Odubote (2000)demonstrated that litter size of West African Dwarf goats had been significantlyaffected by parity. Mean litter size at birth was 1.79 + 0.05 kids.Findings of Thumrong et al. (2000) showed that litter size and multiple birth rateincreased with parity. Litter size and multiple birth rate increased from 140-148and 39-45% for parity 1-3 to 163-167 and 55-60% for parity greater than 3.Litter size and multiple birth rate for Thai native and Anglo Nubian does were141-144 and 40%. Odubote (1990) studies on the West African Dwarf goatdemonstrated that litter size at birth tended to improve over the years and withparity. This may be due to the efficiency of reproduction as the doe matures.Results of Galina et al. (1995) investigated on Mexican goats under variousmanagement systems found that the number of kids per parturition can bepartially explained by the age of the dam and number of parturition, first kiddinghaving the smallest prolificacy.Alexandre et al. (2001) studied Creole goats and found that their prolificacyreached 1.98 kids per kidding, and these traits varied essentially with rank ofkidding. The litter size at birth increased from 1.65 to 2.35 total kids born, fromthe first to the seventh kiddings, respectively. Marai et al. (2002) studies ofreproductive traits of Nubian goats found that effects of parity was significant onthe litter size. The same results also were reported by Armbruster and Peters(1993) who observed that litter size was significantly affected by the age of doe.Silva et al. (2002) working on Alpine goats, observed that litter size averaged1.69 + 0.5 with the goats kidding for the first time at 14 months. Song et al.(2001) reported that the birth ratio of the Korea native goat does was 102(2.4%): 277 (63.5%): 21 (11.7%): 6 (1.4%) for single, twin, triplets andquadruplets, respectively.162.2 Weight at Birth and at Weaning and Growth Rate till WeaningBirth weight of kids is regarded as one of the most important contributory factorsfor improving growth performance (Husain et al., 1996). Birth weight of kids isconsidered to be a very important criterion as it is strongly correlated with thegrowth rate, adult body weight and kid viability and hence a determinant factorfor overall productivity (Devendra and Burns, 1983) and the first indicator of thefuture growth rate (Boggs and Merkel, 1993).Coffey (2002) stated that weaning weights are crucial and indicate the milkingability of the herd as well as the growth potential of the kids. According to Boggsand Merkel (1993) weaning weight can be used to estimate growth rate, andweaning weight is an excellent indicator of productivity because it reflects bothlitter size, mothering ability and milking ability. Weaning weight would reflectmothering ability of does as well as the inherent growth potential (Das andSendalo, 1990).Findings of Amoah and Gelaye (1990) showed that there was a negativeassociation between birth weight and litter size. Birth weight could be describedby the multiple regression equation: BW = 2.7564 – 0.3316LS + 0.1863BPwhere BP is the period of breeding. Amoah et al. (1996) found that the birthweight decreased with the litter size by approximately 0.45 kg/kid. Song et al.(2001) reported that the mean birth weight of a kid of the Korean native goatwas 2.04 kg with a variety 2.28, 2.11 and 1.64 kg for single, twin and triplet overof birth type, respectively.Single and twin-born kids have higher birth weight than triplets, hence, a betterchance for survival (Nawarz and Khalil, 1998). Mourad and Anous (1998)reported that the birth weights of kids in the Common African and Alpinecrossbred goats were 3.1, 2.8, 2.3 and 2.3 kg for single, twin, triplets andquadruplets, respectively.17Das et al. (1990) working with Blended goats showed that birth weight and liveweight at all ages were significantly affected by the type of birth. Generally thebirth weight decreased with the increase in litter size. Okello (1993) workingwith Mubende goats reported that single kids were heavier at birth than twinsand males were heavier than females. Another researcher reported that theeffect of the birth type was persistent from birth to yearling age. Kids in singlebirth maintained the highest weight followed by twins and triplets (Husain et al.,1996).Result of Kochapakdee et al. (2000) working with native Thai and their crosseswith Anglo Nubian goats showed that male kids were significantly heavier atbirth and at weaning compared with female animals (2.1 vs. 1.9kg and 8.2 vs.7.4 kg) and single kids were also significantly heavier at birth and at weaningcompared with multiple kids (2.1 vs. 1.9 kg and 9.2 vs. 7.2 kg).Alexandre et al. (1999) studies on Guadeloupean Creole goats reported thatbody weight at birth and at weaning were 1.73 + 0.34 and 7.75 + 1.76 kg,respectively. Birth weight and weaning weight were 10% and 8% higher formales than females, respectively. Both traits were 15% higher for single than formultiple kids. Das (1993) investigations on Blended goats revealed that malekids were heavier at birth than female kids. Weight at birth and at weaning weresignificantly affected by sex and type of birth.Ikwuegbu et al. (1995) studies on African Dwarf goats under village conditionsshowed that the birth weight was affected by year, season, sex of kid and birthtype. Mourad (1993) showed that single born kids were heavier than twins inAlpine and Zaraibi goats. Results of Zhou et al. (2003) revealed that bodyweight of male Inner Mongolia cashmere goats was significantly heavier thanadult females.Marai et al. (2002) studies of reproductive traits of Nubian goats found that theeffects of sex were significant at litter weight at birth and at weaning. A surveyof goats showed that both sex and breed had significant effects for live weight(Lusweti, 2000). Amoah et al. (1996) found that birth weight was varied among18breeds, and males were heavier than female kids. Alexandre et al. (1999)working on Creole goats reported that body weight at birth and body weight atweaning was higher for males than for females.Findings of Silva et al. (1998) showed that kid birth weight of the Alpine dairygoats was varied, 3.3-4.5 kg with males, 2.5-3.7 kg with females, and singlewas 15% heavier. This was in agreement with those reported by Nawarz andKhalil (1998) for ewes. Single kids’ weight was higher than that of twins andtriplets. The birth weight of kids varied according to sex. The male kids hadhigher birth weight than female kids (Nawarz and Khalil, 1998). The sameresults were also reported by Gerstmayr and Horst’s (1995) studies on Angoragoats and concluded that male kids were heavier, especially at birth, thanfemale kids.Results of Husain et al. (1996) revealed that there was a tendency to increasingweight with the advance of parity at least up to the 3rd parity. Mellado et al.(1991) studies on native goats in Mexico demonstrated that birth weights werepositively correlated with parity. The same results also demonstrated byOsinowo et al. (1992) who found weaning weights were significantly affected byparity, litter size and sex. Weaning weight increased consistently from the firstto fifth parity, and both single and male lambs had a higher weaning weight thantwins and females. Marai et al. (2002) studies of reproductive traits of Nubiangoats found that the effects of parity were significant at litter weight at birth andat weaning.Growth is the increase in size and change in body composition (Steele, 1996,Gatensby, 1991) and depends on the multiplication of cells (hyperplasia) andthe increase of cell size (hypertrophy) (Edey, 1983). True growth is frequentlydescribed as an increase in the structural tissue (bone, muscle and theconnective tissues associated with muscle (Boggs and Merkel, 1993). Taylor(1995) stated that growth is an increase in body weight until mature size isreached. Development is defined as the directive coordination of all diverseprocesses until maturity is reached. Growth, cellular differentiation and changein body shape and form are involved.19Some criteria used to evaluate growth, development and fattening consist of:weight (on live animal and carcass), muscle and fat (Boggs and Merkel, 1993).Representation of growth and development consists of: (1) Cumulative growthcurve, (2) Average rate of gain which is commonly used, (3) Daily rate of gainagainst age, (4) Relative growth rate, and (5) Indices of development (Edey,1983).Growth rate can be effectively divided into two periods (Luginbul, 2000; Edey,1983): pre-weaning average daily gain and post-weaning daily gain. A high pre-weaning average daily gain reflects the genetic potential of the growing animaland mothering ability of the doe. Rapid growth is an essential criterion for theimprovement of meat production in goats (McGowan and Nurce, 2000). In someproduction systems, kids are sold at weaning and therefore pre-weaningaverage daily gain is an important production trait to consider (Luginbul, 2002).Growth during the pre-weaning period is largely determined by maternal milkproduction and competition for it amongst litter mates.The major factors affecting the pre-weaning growth are: genotype, birth weight,milk production and litter size (Edey, 1983), sex, nutrition, maturing rate (Boggsand Merkel (1993). The growth rate of kids was influenced by the energy leveloffered to the doe during lactation (Sibanda et al., 1999).Results of Das and Sendalo (1990) working on meat goats in Malya, Tanzania,reported that single born kids exhibited a higher growth than the twins from birthto weaning. Male goats were significantly heavier and grew faster than females.Gebrelul et al. (1994) revealed that the sex of kids had a significant effect onweaning weight and pre-weaning average daily rate on Alpine, Nubian andcrossbred single-born or multiple-born kids, reared as single were heavier atweaning and grew faster in the pre-weaning average daily gain than multiple-born and reared kids.Das et al. (1990) working with blended goats showed that single-born and malekids grew faster than twin-born and female kids. Mourad and Anous (1998)20demonstrated that type of birth with African and Alpine crossbred goats affectedbody weight and the average daily gain of kids. Montaldo et al. (1995) studieson local goats in Mexico demonstrated that goats with two or more kids at birthhad greater milk production, efficiency and body weight than goats with one kid.Okello (1993) reported that single kids of Mubende goats grew faster than twinsand males had a higher growth rate than females. Das’s (1993) investigationson blended goats revealed that single-born kids exhibited a faster growth ratethan the twin born kids.Results of Alexandre et al. (1999) studies on Creole goats showed that the dailyweight gain from 10 to 30 days of age varied from 95 g for single kids to lessthan 70 g for multiples, and from 91 g for males to 86 g for females. Madibela etal. (2002) working in Tswana goats concluded that kid birth weight waspositively correlated with the growth rate. Karua and Banda (1990) reported thatmale kids were heavier than female kids. Single and male had a higher averagedaily gain than twins and females (Osinowo et al. 1992).Inyangala et al. (1990) concluded that parity was a significant source ofvariation for the growth rate. The age of the dam had a significant effect onweaning weight and pre-weaning average daily rate on Alpine, Nubian andcrossbred (Gebrelul et al., 1994). Ikwuegbu et al. (1995) studies on AfricanDwarf goats under village conditions showed that the rate of gain and bodyweight up to weaning were affected by year, parity and birth type.Kochapakdee et al. (2000) working on Native Thai and their crosses with AngloNubian goats showed that male kids grew significantly faster, compared withfemale kids (67.1 vs. 60.5 g/d) and single kids also grew significantly faster,compared to multiple kids (57.7 vs. 57.2 g/d). Thai native kids also had a lowerpre-weaning growth rate than Anglo Nubian goats. Results of Osinowo et al.(1992) showed that pre-weaning average daily gain was significantly affected byparity, litter size and sex.21The study on comparative productivity of Thai native and crossbred goats bySurapol et al. (2000) found that under improved management crossbred goatsgrew faster and had higher mature body weight than native animals. Does andkids fed with concentrate and hay in the intensive system grew faster and wereheavier than those raised on pasture and fed supplementary amounts of corn(McGowan and Leong, 1998). Similar findings were also reported by Sodiq etal. (2001) that under the village production system, the growth rate can beincreased by improving feeding and housing management systems. Ogebe etal. (1995) studies on West African Dwarf goats concluded that a modification ofthe traditional system of management was essential in order to obtain steadyand optimum growth.Christopher (2001) reported that among all superior traits for goat meatproduction, heavier body weight and faster growing rates were the mostnotable. Jiabi et al. (2001) studied the improvement effect of crossbreedingBoer goats and Sichuan native goats and revealed that the crossbred F1 goatsgrew faster than local breeds with the advantages of better meat production,great potential of improvement in production, good mating ability and significanthybrid vigor.2.3Survival Rate till Weaning (Pre-weaning Mortality)High mortality of young stock is the major cause of low productivity (Awemu etal., 1999). The successful end of the reproductive process depends on the bornanimal surviving (Lindsay et al., 1982). Kid survival is important in a meat goatenterprise. Kid losses occur during 3 distinct periods of time: at birth, from birthto weaning, and from weaning to maturity or breeding age. The period from birthto weaning is the most critical (McGowan and Nurce, 2000).It is common experience that multiple births in goats are associated with a highmortality rate (Devendra and Burns, 1983). The environmental factors exerted22significant influences on the pre-weaning mortality (Awemu et al.,1999).Survival rates of Black Bengal kids were affected by birth weight of kids andmilk yield of dams. Higher survival rates were noticed for male kids. This ismainly due to significantly higher birth weight of male kids (Husain et al., 1994).Birth weight of kids had a relationship with survivability during the pre-weaningperiod. Single kids always had a higher survival rate than twins and triplets. Theeffect of sex was significant with male kids having a higher survival rate thanfemales (Husain et al., 1995). Mtenga et al. (1992) working on Small EastAfrican goats reported that twins exhibited a higher pre-weaning mortality ratethan single animals (48.3% vs 38.5%). There was a tendency for the mortalityrate to be higher for twins than for single births. Okello (1993) working withMubende goats reported that the overall mortality rate till weaning was 17percent and the mortality rate of twins was significantly higher than singleanimals.Awemu et al. (2002) working on Red Sokoto goats found that mortality wassignificantly affected by the type of birth. Alexandre et al., (1999) reported thatkids’ pre-weaning mortality on Creole goat averages 13.6%, 60% of whichoccurred from birth to 15 days post partum. It increased with litter size and was5% higher for males than for females. Madibela et al. (2002) found that survivalrates were similar (91.9 vs 93.9) between multiples and singles in Tswanagoats. The initial low birth weight of multiples was not of the magnitude thatwould predispose them to higher mortality. Survival rates and growth rates canbe improved by supplementation.Results of Husain et al. (1995) concluded that the effect of parity was significantbut survivability increased gradually with the increase in the parity numberhaving the highest survival rate in the 5th parity. Awemu et al. (1999) reportedthat the mortality rate generally decreased with the increasing parities. Thismay be attributed to the physiological maturity of older does and their ability toprovide enough milk for the kids. Other researchers, Steve and Marco (2001),reported that kid survival to 1 year was unrelated to maternal age (mean agewas 7.9 + 0.4 years for 49 females whose kid survived to 1 year, and 8.4 + 0.423years for 45 females whose kid died). The same results were also reported byAwemu et al. (2002) working on Red Sokoto goats who found that the mortalitytended to decrease with birth weight, but decreased as parity increased. Ingo(2002) reported that the parity of dam was not found to have a significant effecton the mortality rate. This is in contrast with the findings of other studies, whichidentified the parity of the dam to be a significant source of variation in kidmortality (Wilson et al., 1985).Awemu et al. (2002) reported that the mortality of Red Sokoto goats wassignificantly affected by birth weight. Other researchers reported that due to lowbirth weight and poor nutrition, the mortality rate is high (Banerjee andBanerjee, 2000). Mortality generally decreased as the birth weight of kidsincreased. Mortality tended to increase with a larger size litter (Awemu et al.,1999). Bradford et al. (1983) reported that the litter size affected survival mainlythrough its effect on birth weight. Lower birth weight and lack of husbandryknowledge were considered the main factors responsible for higher kid mortality(Husain et al., 1995).Mtenga et al. (1992) working on Small East African goats reported that thelowest pre-weaning mortality rate occurred in animals with a birth weightgreater than 2.6 kg. Birth weight had a significant effect on the mortality rate ofkids, the mortality rate decreased with increasing birth weight. Results ofRattner et al. (1994) revealed that the combination of low birth weight withhybridization of the goat and ibex resulted in increased mortality. Other findingsof Madibela et al. (2002) stated that the initial low birth weight of multiples wasnot of the magnitude that would predispose them to higher mortality. Survivalrates can be improved by supplementations.Steve and Marco (2001) found survival to weaning of mountain goat kidsappeared higher for males (90%) than for females (78%), but survival to 1 yearwas 65% for both sexes. Overall kid survival was 70.5% to weaning and 60.3%to 1 year. Ingo (2002) reported that sex did not exert significant influences onkid survival. Alexandre et al. (1999) studies on Guadeloupean Creole goatsreported that kids ́ pre-weaning mortality averaged 13.6%, 60% of which24occurred from birth to 15 days post-partum. It increased with litter size and was5% higher for males than females.Results of Fuah et al. (1994) studies of local goats in West Timor reported thatmost kid mortality occurred between one to four weeks of age with 80% under 3weeks of age. The higher kid mortality might be due to poor management ofanimal health practice. Ameh et al. (2002) studies on mortality in Sahelian goatsshowed that mortality was higher in kids (less than 6 months) than in adults.Gastrointestinal and respiratory diseases were the most common causes ofmortality.2.4Kidding Interval and Gestation PeriodThe kidding interval is defined as the period of time in days between twoconsecutive kiddings of a dam (Steele, 1996). This trait gains importance whendescribing reproductive efficiency under tropical conditions, where goats breedall year round (Lindsay et al., 1982; Saithanoo and Norton, 1991). The numberof parturitions during the lifetime of a goat is determined by longevity. Theinterval between kiddings is of great importance for the economics of production(Song et al., 2001). The interval between parturition and the first post partumoestrus is an important trait which contributes to the productive efficiency(Greyling, 2000).Kidding interval and gestation length are traits influenced by genetic,environmental and management factors (Urdaneta et al., 2000). Kiddingintervals have been reported to be affected by a number of environmentalfactors including parity, year and season of previous kidding (Awemu et al.,1999). Awemu et al. (2002) reported that kidding interval of Red Sokoto goatswas significantly affected by parity. As parity increased, so kidding intervaldecreased. Ndlovu and Simela (1996) studies on smallholder East African goatherds in Zimbabwe found that the kidding intervals were 321 + 23.6, 325 + 30.925and 259 + 50.1 days for does kidding in the hot dry, hot wet and cool dryseasons, respectively.Odubote’s (2002) studies on West African Dwarf goats showed that the effect ofparity and season was significant for the kidding interval, with the mean kiddinginterval being 275.68 + 6.08 days. Christopher (2001) reported that the meangestation length of the Boer goat was approximately 148 days. Does withmultiple births tend to have a shorter gestation length with 1 to 2 days differencebetween twins and triplets.The effect of birth type, age, sex and parity on gestation length and kiddinginterval of Boer and blended goats has been studied. In Boer goats Greyling(2000) reported that there was no significant difference in the gestation lengthbetween does bearing singletons or triplets and the season of mating had nosignificant effect on the gestation length. Das (1993) demonstrated that olddoes (3-4 years) tended to have lower kidding intervals than the younger (1-2years) and older does (>5 years). This is probably due to the reproductivephysiology function being more active in 3-4 years old does compared to loweractivity in younger and older does. Amoah et al. (1996) reported that thegestation period decreased as the litter size of the doe increased (b = -0.92d/kid) and increased slightly with increasing parity (b = 0.22 d/parity). Thegestation period was significantly affected by breed, litter size and parity. Otherresearchers Wright and Wildeus (1996) reported that the litter size at birthaffected litter birth, but not the gestation length on Myotonic, Pygmy andSpanish breeds.Results of Odubote’s (1990) studies on West African Dwarf goats demonstratedthat the range and mean kidding interval were 187 to 478 days and 275.68 +6.08 days, respectively. The kidding interval was significantly affected by parity.There was a significant decrease in the kidding interval from the fifth parity.Akusu and Ajala (2000) reported that the mean gestation length of West AfricanDwarf goats was 144.9 days and was not significantly affected by season ofbirth. Does with single kids had a longer gestation than those with twins andtriplets. The mean gestation length in dams giving birth to only female kids was261.13 days longer than in does with only male kids. Results of Öztürk and Akta(1996) studies on Merino sheep showed that for triple births the gestation length(153.7 + 0.73 days) was longer than for twin births (152.8 + 0.16), and twinswere carried longer than single lambs (151.6 + 0.22 days). Heavier lambs had alonger gestation length.The length of gestation in goats is fairly constant at 146 to 151 days (Ensmingerand Parker, 1986). There was no significant difference in the post partumanoestrus interval for does giving birth to different numbers of offspring(Greyling, 1998, 2000). Results of Urdaneta et al. (2000) revealed that nosignificant breeding effect (between Alpine and Nubian goats) was found for thekidding interval, Alpine averaged 390.7 vs 414.4 days for the Nubian. Gestationlength was 151.6 days for Alpine does and 149.2 days for Nubian does.Greyling (2000) investigated reproductive traits in the Boer goat doe andshowed that multiple births had no significant effect on the gestation length, themean gestation length being 148.2 + 3.7 days. The mean interval from partus toconception recorded was 62 + 20.2 days. Results of Karua and Banda (1990)revealed that the sex of kids and the litter size did not affect the gestationlength. Gestation length in dams kidding single kids (147.14 + 2.86 days) wasabout the same as in dams kidding multiple kids (147.09 + 3.05 days). Similarly,the gestation length in those kidding male kids (146.94 + 2.7 days) was thesame as those kidding female kids (147.34 + 2.98 days).Results of Galina et al. (1995) working with Mexican goats under variousmanagement systems showed that the interval between kidding was 347 days(+56 days) with the first time birth at about 14 months. Another researcher,Mellado et al. (2002) reported that the mean parturition interval of Nubian goatswas 302 days. Alexandre et al. (1999) studies on Guadeloupean Creole goatsreported that the mean kidding interval was 8.5 + 1.2 months, with the age atfirst kidding averaging 17.2 + 3.1 months.The time between kiddings of local does under traditional systems in theBanyumas area was about 0.75 to 1.25 years (Sodiq et al., 1998). Song et al.27(2001) reported that the gestation period was 150.69 + 6.14 days for Koreannative does where parities had no significant effect on the gestation length. Themean interval between parturitions was 207.78 + 1.72 days with parities, andbirth type, having no significant effect on the kidding interval.2.5 Doe Productivity IndexReproductive performance is one of the main determinants of productivity ofgoats. This applies to breeding of animals for meat production (O`Shea, 1993).High reproduction rates are essential for profit in meat goat production (Ezekweand Lovin, 1996). Much of the profit to be realized will depend on the frequencywith which litters are produced, the size of litters and the survival to weaning ofmultiple litters (Wildeus, 2000). Reproductive efficiency contribution to net profitoccurs not only by increasing the total population proportion that is producingand the number of animals for sale, but also by reducing non-productive lifeperiods within the population (Pariacote, 1992).Reproductive efficiency in does is characterized by the individual andcompound parameters. These parameters can be measured and can becombined into an index of biological productivity (Steinbach, 1988). Severalreproductive traits and the pre-weaning growth rate can be combined into anindex (productivity index) to give a measure of productivity (Das, 1993; Gipson,2000). In animals kept primarily for meat production, the reproduction rate is thesingle most important factor contributing to the efficiency of production(Luginbul, 2002).Reproductive efficiency as such can be measured and expressed as the kiddingrate, weaning rate, kidding interval, liveweight of kids born or weaned and thelength of the reproductive cycle (Greyling, 1998). Offpring survival is one of themost important sources of variation in a lifetime reproductive success inmammals (Steve and Marco, 2001). Twinning percentage and kid survival areimportant components of profitability (Coffey, 2002).28The level of reproductive performance is dependent on the interaction of geneticand environmental factors (Greyling, 2000). Meat production in animals isaffected by such variables as growth, weight at different ages, mortality,parturition interval, milk yield and mothering ability (Awemu et al., 2002).Reproductive traits of Nubian goats demonstrated that effects of sex and paritywere significant on weight of kids produced at weaning/doe life time and litterweight at weaning (Marai et al., 2002). Due to the slow growth rates and longkidding intervals the flock productivity in terms of weaned live kid weight (kg)per doe per year was low (Ndlovu and Simela, 1996).In order to optimize the reproductive potential of the goat, it is essential that areproductive management programme be implemented that takes into accountall the reproductive physiology aspects (Greyling, 2000). High rates of pre-weaning mortality in goats have been reported to be a major constraint onimproving productivity in traditional husbandry systems (Devendra and Burns,1983). High postnatal mortality indices rates have been associated with, amongother factors, sex of kid, multiple birth, low birth weight and suboptimal feedinglevels during gestation, parity and age of dam, low milk production, and seasonof birth (Rattner et al., 1994). Reproductive success may be positivelycorrelated with maternal age. Kid production increased with age (specificmaternal age), but decreased slightly after 9 years of age. It was indicated thatthe relationship between age and kid production was curvilinear (Steve andMarco, 2001).Productivity index (kg/doe/year) for Red Sakoto goats in parity 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and6 were 20.9, 21.4, 22.5, 23.6, 27.9 and 33.4 kg, respectively (Awemu et al.,2002). Doe productivity index reported by Anggraeni et al. (1995) and Sodiq(2001) was 13.2 and 16.7 kg/doe/year, respectively. Awemu et al. (1999)reported that the parity and type of birth significantly influenced the productivityindex. The effect of type of birth was highly substantial in goats, withquadruplets’ births producing 32.8 kg more meat at weaning than single births.29Survival rates and growth rates were improved by supplementation, resulting ina higher productivity index. Where nutritional supplementation is introduced it isbiologically sensible to encourage multiple births since the productivity indexfrom the resultant twinning would double. The effect of the nutritional state onthe reproductive and production performance was also reported by Rhind(1991) and Rook and Kopcha (2002). Similar findings were also reported byMadibela et al. (2002) working on Tswana goats clearly show that the potentialof improving the feeding management on the productivity index.2.6 Body Condition ScoreThe term body condition refers to fleshiness of an animal (Luginbuhl, 2002,Thompson and Meyer, 1994) and describes the degree of fatness (Mangione,2002) or an index to the degree of fatness expressed in the anatomy of theanimal that can be viewed by the human eye (GAN Lab, 2001). Conditionscoring is a system of describing or classifying animals by differences in relativebody fatness (Thomas and Kott, 2002, Skea, 1990). The advantage of acondition score measurement is that it is easy to learn, fast, simple, cheap,does not require specialized equipment and is sufficiently accurate for manyresearch and management situations (Rutter et al., 2002), it is useful not onlyfor research scientists but also for farmers and development planners(Nicholson and Butterworth, 1986; Cisse et al, 1990).Steele (1996) stated that the body condition scoring is a method of assessingthe body condition. Due to the fact that goats have very little body fat under theskin, this system really gives a good estimate of the goats` muscle cover.Santucii et al. (1991) reported that body condition scoring of goats is ameasurable parameter and was regularly included in the research programmesof several countries. A system for giving a number or score to describe thedegree of fatness was started in Australia and then widely accepted in the UK(Gatenby, 1991). The purpose of giving numbers to the condition is to allow a30statistical analysis of the data and to facilitate codification on computer files(Nicholson and Butterworth, 1986).Several authors and researchers described the methods of allocating a score orindex of body condition. The principle of the body condition scoring method,according to Santucii et al. (1991) is to use a scale from 0 to 5. The score isgiven to an animal obtained by palpation of 2 anatomical regions: the sternumand the lumbar vertebrae. A similar scale was also used by Gatenby (1991) forsheep, (score 0 = starving, score 1 = very thin, score 2 = thin, score 3 =moderate, score 4 = fat and score 5 = very fat), and by Steele (1996) for goats.The fingers and thumbs were used to feel three points on the goat ́s back:spinous processes, transverse process and loin muscle. IBGA (2002) on theSouth African Boer Goat developed the scoring 0-50 consisting of emaciated (0-5), thin (5-10), somewhat thin (10-15), moderate (15-20), conditioned (15),fleshy (30-35), fat (35-40), extremely fat (40-45), grossly fat (45-50). A 1-5 scalescore on the Sahel goats was used by Cisse et al. (1990).Thompson and Meyer (1994) stated that scoring was based on the feeling ofthe level of muscle and fat deposition over and around the vertebrae in the loinregion. The body condition in scoring of the sheep system used was based onthe scale of 1 to 5. The five scores consist of: condition 1 (emaciated), condition2 (thin), condition 3 (average), condition 4 (fat) and condition 5 (obese). Thomasand Kott (2002) developed body condition scores in the ewes ranging from 0 to5, with 0 being a dead and a 5, a big fat animal. The scoring is based on feelingby hand in the loin region. Morrical (1986) under sheep management used fivecondition scores: condition score 1 (very thin), condition score 2 (thin), conditionscore 3 (average), condition score 4 (fat), and condition score 5 (very fat).Luginbuhl (2002) on monitoring the body condition of meat goats used a 1 to 9point graduated scale. Scale 1 to 3 is thin, 4 to 6 is moderate and fat is 7 –9with the areas to be monitored: tail, head, pins, edge of loin, back bone, ribs,hocks, shoulder and longissimus dorsi. Cornell University (2002) reported thatthe live condition scores assigned in Australia are as follows: score 1 (coveringover carcass site <0.16 inch, score 2 (covering over carcass site <0.25), score 331(covering is <0.4 inch), score 4 (covering over carcass site is about a half inch)and score 5 (covering is more than 0.5 inch thick). The same model was alsodeveloped by Hinton (1993) for sheep in Australia. They used five scores, score0 (not fat) to score 5 (very fat), and the condition score be translated into actualmillimeters of fat at slaughter. Corner University (2002) developed the fat scorefor Alberta, Canada and rely more on feeling the spine and short ribs of thegoat. They are as follows: very lean - body angular, lean – backbone raised andbarely covered, medium – backbone slightly raised, fat- smooth roundedappearance.Many researchers’ studies on the relationship between the body condition scoreand adipose tissue weight, e.g., Poisot (1998) working on Creole goats, Brancaand Casu (1987) working on Sardinian goats and Santucii et al. (1991) workingon Corsian goats. Their research showed that the correlation coefficientbetween the value of body condition scoring and subcutaneous adipose tissueweight of goat was 0.84; 0.76 and 0.62 on Creole, Sardinian and Corsian goats,respectively. The correlation coefficient between the value of the body conditionscoring and the internal adipose tissue weight of goat was 0.76 and 0.91 onCreole and Sardinian goats, respectively. Nicholson and Butterworth’s (1986)studies on condition score of cattle at slaughter demonstrated that amonganimals of the same age and sex, live weights, carcass weights, and edibletissue yield were high correlated with condition score.Aumont et al. (1994) studied the precision and accuracy of the scoring methodof the body condition for Creole does. Their results showed that repeatability ofthe body condition scoring was 88% and reproducibility was 80%. The bodycondition scoring appeared as the best predictor of the total adipose tissue in anempty body weight and total adipose tissue of carcass.Sodiq’s (1997) studies in the Banyumas region of Indonesia found that therewas a relationship between the value of the body condition scoring and thecarcass weight on local goats. Most of the local goats under the villagemanagement systems have the score 1 (thin condition) and 2 (moderatecondition) with the minimum score 0 and maximum score 5. Santucii et al.32(1991) reported that the body condition score was closely correlated withcarcass fat contents (r = 0.91) in Sardinian goats. Sternal fat was correlatedwith the body condition score and the total quantity of visceral adipose tissueson Corsian, Sardinian and Creole goats.Lawrence and Fowler (1997) indicated that the body condition scoring can be avery useful management aid in predicting body composition. Condition scoringwere related to all carcass dimensions (Clemets et al., 1981). The relationshipbetween body weight and condition score on the Rasa Arganesa breed wassemilogarithmic, and that between carcass fat depots and condition score waslogarithmic (Teixeira, 1989). The correlation of the body condition scores withbody weight was also reported by Sanson et al. (1993) who reported that bodyweight and condition scores were highly correlated (0.89) and an analysisindicated that each unit increase in condition scores resulted in an increase of5.1 kg in body weight.The applying of the body condition score has been reported by someresearchers. Mangione (2002) reported that the body condition scoring systemin beef cattle can improve herd health, feed-resources management,reproductive performance and weaning weight. All these benefits associatedwith the body condition scoring can improve profit. Other researchers statedthat body condition scoring is most useful at a critical period such as prior tobreeding, weaning time and near calving Gill (2002) and an indicator to predictherd fertility and to determine the feeding programme (Rutter et al., 2002).Thomson and Meyer (1994) reported that body condition scoring can be used toevaluate the status of the animal and a potential tool for producers to increaseproduction efficiency.Thomas and Kott (2002) stated that the use of both body weight and bodycondition scoring can help producers make important feed managementdecisions. Ferguson (1996) implemented a body condition scoring system indairy cattle. Otto et al. (1991) examined carcass composition in relation to bodycondition scoring in cows. They found that one unit change in condition wasequivalent to 56 kg of body weight. Total carcass dry matter increased 7.2333percent for each unit increased in the body condition score. Their workdemonstrated that the body condition score correlated with body compositionand was a useful tool in the field to assess carcass composition. Results ofAumont et al. (1994) studies on Creole goats indicated that composition ofmuscle and adipose tissue was significantly influenced by body conditionscoring.2.7 Leg Conformation IndexConformation can be defined as the visual shape of the body of an animal,particularly the relationship between the skeleton and the covering of muscleand fat (Alliston, 1983). Conformation describes how an animal is constructedor put together (Owen, 2002) and refers to the physical form of an animal, itsshape and arrangement of parts (Taylor, 1995). Live animal conformation inslaughter stock defined as the thickness of muscle and fat in relation to skeletalsize. Carcass conformation measured by the relationship between length of legrelative to carcass weight (Butterfield, 1988). Conformation is the manner offormation of the carcass with particular reference to the relative development ofthe muscular and skeletal system. Muscling in the leg may be evaluated in termof its conformation in an unribbed carcass to obtain an assessment of overallmuscling. Weight and frame size indicate both the growability and the relativecomposition of the animal (Boggs and Merkel, 1993).Gebrelul’s (2002) studies on selection and evaluation of live meat goats andgrade standards stated that several characteristics including conformation,general appearance, muscling and condition should be looked at whenevaluating a live animal for slaughter purposes. Edmudo et al. (2002) statedthat judging meat goats should be evaluated on type and market desirability,and refer to frame size, and skeleton correctness. Meat production potential canbe estimated from growth capacity (mature weight), growth intensity (averagedaily gain), and carcass quality of weaned male kids and lambs (Steinbach,1988).34The circle of leg (circle of the vastus lateralis, in cm) divided by length leg(length between patella to tarsus, in cm) indicated the leg conformation index(Pulungan, 1983). Rismaniah et al. (1990) working in the Tegal Subdistrict inIndonesia concluded that both length and circle of leg can be used to assessthe body weight on post weaning goats. The average lengths of leg of femaleand male post weaning goats were 14.29 + 1.84 cm (ranged 12-18 cm) and14.39+1.58cm(ranged12.5-18cm),respectively.Theaveragecircumferences of leg of female and male post weaning goats were 24.32 +1.84 cm (ranged 17-28.5 cm) and 25.10 + 1.58 cm (ranged 12.5-18 cm),respectively.Some researchers on evaluation of meat goats and sheep investigated both theconformation and leg length; Stanford et al. (1997) studies on lamb carcass,Wolf et al. (2001) studies on Texel lamb, Sanz et al. (2002) studies on kidsgoats and lamb, VDACS (2000) studies on yield grade and quality grades forlamb carcass, and Tatum et al. (1992) studies on leg conformation as factorsconsidered determining yield grades for lamb carcass. Soedjadi et al. (1989)reported that leg conformation index of post weaning goats with the body weight(9.4 till 20.8 kg) in the Cilacap region ranged from 84.6 till 133.3, with theaverage 104.77 + 11.13.Sodiq and Soedjadi (1998) and Haryanto et al. (1990) reported that the methodof palpation on the leg region of the cattle, goats and sheep is very commonlyused by butchers in abattoirs and livestock markets. The methods were used toclassify the grade (thin-fat) and also to predict the body and carcass weight ofcertain livestock. Purnama and Sodiq’s (1998) studies on local goats inBanyumas` slaughtering houses (abattoir) found a relationship between legconformation and carcass weight.353METHODOLOGY3.1 Study LocationThis study was carried out by on-farm research commencing in December 1999and finishing in July 2002, located in the Grobogan and Purworejo region,Central Java, Indonesia. Indonesia is situated roughly between 6° to 11° northlatitudes and 95° and 141° east longitudes. The temperature in Indonesia, as itis a tropical country, stays within a constant range, differing only a few degreesbetween the hot and cool months: 23-31°C daily in the low plains and 18-27 inthe inferior plateau. Indonesia consists of over 17.000 islands spread around5600 km from east to west and 1600 km from north to south. The land areacovers 1.8 million km2 surrounded by sea. Java Island represents only 6-7% ofthe total land area, however, it is the most densely populated island in terms ofboth human and animal populations.3.2 Animal TypesThe research concentrates on two breeds of goat in Indonesia, namely: theKacang goat (Figure 1 and 2) and the Peranakan Etawah goat (Figure 3 and 4).The Kacang goat is a local (indigenous) breed of goat found in Indonesia. ThePeranakan Etawah goat descended originally from crossings between theKacang goat with Etawah (Jamnapari) goat.36Figure 1: Doe of Kacang goatFigure 2: Kid of Kacang goat37Figure 3: Doe of Peranakan Etawah goatFigure 4: Kid of Peranakan Etawah goat383.3 Data Collection and ProceduresOn-farm research conducted under smallholders (private farms) involved 480does and 2000 kids of Peranakan Etawah and Kacang goats. The studycommenced with primary visits to identify herd and individual female goats. Theherds were monitored (visited) regularly. Each herd was visited at thecommencement of the study and does were identified with a neckband tag. Thefollowing data were collected during the initial visits: (1) Herd details includingnumbers and breeds, type of operation and management practice; (2) individualfemale goat details including breed, age and parity. Herd owners and villagestaff (or head of cooperation and extension worker) were issued with scales tohelp record birth and doe weight. Breeding record cards were also prepared, sothat they could help to collect data related to date of mating, kidding date andsex of kids. Some equipment required in this work:was livestock record (form),breeding record card, identification (marking) tool, weight scale (balance) andneckband tag.In this research, reproduction and production traits of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats were studied;(a) Reproduction traits: (1) type of birth, (2) litter weight at birth, (3) litter weightat weaning, (4) survival rate till weaning, (5) kidding interval, and (6) doeproductivity.(b) Production traits: (1) average birth weight, (2) average weaning weight, (3)average growth rate till weaning, (4) body condition score, and (5) legconformation.Some factors affecting reproduction and production traits of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats were examined;(a) Reproduction factors: parity, type of birth, litter weight at birth and litterweight at weaning.(b) Production factors: parity, type of birth, sex and birth weight.39Some definitions (terminology) used in this study;1) Type of birth: single, twin (twin) or triplet.2) Litter size (head): the number of kids born to each doe at each birth3) Birth weight (kg): the weight of each kid at birth, kids were weighedimmediately after birth using scales to the nearest 0.1 kg.4) Litter weight at birth (kg): the weight of total kids born.5) Weaning weight (kg): the weight of each kid at weaning, kids were weighedat weaning time (120 days of age) using scales to the nearest 0.1 kg.6) Growth rates of kids (gram/day): derived by taking the difference in weightwithin the period and dividing it by the time interval in days (analysed frombirth until 4 months).7) Survival rate till weaning (percentage weaning live) (%): the total number oflive kids at weaning divided by the total number of kids born (litter size).8) Kidding interval (year): number of days between two successive kiddings.9) Parity: defined based on the number of times the does had kidded (parities 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6).10) Doe Productivity index (kg/doe/year): the weight of kids weaned by eachdoe during a year. This is to express the ability of the goat for meatproduction.Number of kids at weaningDoe productivity index =(kg/doe/year)Kidding interval (in year)X Weaning weight11) Body Condition Scoring (score 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5): classifying the bodycondition of goat by assessing the physical characteristics. The scoringsystem is summarized in Table 1.12) Leg conformation (leg conformation index): the circumference of vastuslateralis (in cm) divided by the length between patella to tarsus (in cm).13) Small Ruminant Unit (SRU): livestock unit for small ruminant, doe (morethan 12 months) = 1 SRU, young (4-12 months) = 0.7 SRU, kid (less than 4months) = 0.25 SRU.40Table 1: Body condition scoring of goat (Steele, 1996)ConditionscoreDescriptionScore 0 Extremely thin; nearly dead; no muscle between skin and boneScore 1 The spinous processes are sharp and stick upTransverse processes are sharp and fingers can easily be pushedunder their endsThere is a hollow between the end of each processLoin muscles are shallowScore 2The spinous processes feel less sharp; fingers can be pushedunder the transverse processes with a little pressureLoin muscle are of moderate depthScore 3The spinous processes only stick up very slightly; they are smoothand roundedFirm pressure is needed to detect each one separatelyTransverse processes are smooth and well covered; firm pressureis required to push fingers under the endsLoin muscles are fullScore 4Spinous processes can just be felt, with firm pressure, as a hardline and are level with the flesh on either sideThe ends of the transverse processes cannot be feltLoin muscles are fullScore 5Spinous processes cannot be felt at allTransverse processes cannot be feltLoin muscles are very fully developed*Notes :The spinous processes are the bony points rising from the backboneThe transverse processes are the horizontal bones coming outfrom either side of the backboneThe eye muscle is the muscle along each side of the backbone413.4 Statistical Data AnalysisAll information obtained was used to examine the reproduction and productiontraits. Various models were developed for these variables. The type of birth wasassessed by parity affect. For litter weight at birth, the variables of parity andbirth type were evaluated. For survival rate till weaning, kidding interval, anddoe productivity, the following effects were assessed: parity, birth type, and litterat weaning. The following effects: parity, birth type, sex, and birth weight wereused to assess the production traits (weaning weight, growth rate till weaning,body scoring, and leg conformation). For birth weight, the following effects:parity, birth type, and sex were evaluated (see the matrix on Table 2 and 3).The number of livestock in a flock (converted in Small Ruminant Unit) was usedas a co-variate.The data were analysed statistically according to the analysis of varianceprocedure using the General Linear Model (GLM) of Statistical Product andService Solution software (SPSS Inc., 1998). Duncan’s multiple range andTukey’s honestly significant difference test were used to identify significantdifferences. SigmaPlot 4.0 for Windows software (SPSS Inc., 1997) was used toproduce the exact graphs that represent reproduction and production traitsunder certain factors according to the results of statistical analysis.The linear regression on litter weight at birth was calculated to access the litterweight at weaning. The linear regression on litter weight at weaning wascalculated to predict the survival rate till weaning, kidding interval and doeproductivity. The linear regression on birth weight of kid was also calculated topredict some traits of kid production: weaning weight, growth rate till weaning,condition scoring and leg conformation.42Table 2: Matrix of factors affecting reproduction traits under studyTrait under studyParityReproduction factorTypeLitterof birthweightat birthLitterweight atweaningType of birth X Litter weight at birth X X Litter weight at weaning X X Survival rate till weaning X X XKidding interval X X XDoe productivity index X X XXTable 3: Matrix of factors affecting productivity traits under studyTrait under studyParityProduction factorType ofSexbirthBirthweightBirth weight X X X Weaning weight X X X XGrowth rate till weaning X X X XCondition scoring X X X XLeg conformation X X X X43In detail (each variable investigated) the models were used in this study:(a) Variables investigated on doesType of birthYi j = m + Pi + co-variate + eijwhereYi = observation of an individual animal (i-th individual)m = the overall mean for the trait investigatedPi = the effect due to the i-th parity number (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)co-variate = number of livestock in a flock (Small Ruminant Unit)eij = random error particularly to ij-th observationLitter weight at birthYijk = m + Pi + Tj + co-variate + (PT)ij + eijkwhereYijk = observation of an individual animal (ijk- th individual)m = the overall mean for the trait investigatedPi = the effect due to the i-th parity number (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)Tj = the effect due to the j-th type of birth (j = 1, 2, 3)co-variate = number of livestock in a flock (Small Ruminant Unit)(PT)ij = the effect due to the interaction between parity and birth typeeijk = random error particularly to ijk-th observation44Litter weight at weaningYijk = m + Pi + Tj + bXLBijk + co-variate + (PT)ij + eijkwhereYijk = observation of an individual animal (ijk th individual)m = the overall mean for the trait investigatedPi = the effect due to the i-th parity number (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)Tj =the effect due to the j-th type of birth (j = 1, 2, 3)bXLBijk = the linear regression coefficient of the observation of the ijk-thkidding difficulties (or litter weight at weaning) on litter weightat birthco-variate = number of livestock in a flock (Small Ruminant Unit)(PT)ij = the effect due to the interaction between parity and birth typeeijk = random error particularly to ijk-th observationSurvival rate till weaning, kidding interval, doe productivity indexYijk = m + Pi + Tj + bXLWijk + co-variate + (PT)ij + eijkwhereYijk = observation of an individual animal (ijk th individual)m = the overall mean for the trait investigatedPi = the effect due to the i-th parity number (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)Tj =the effect due to the j-th type of birth (j = 1, 2, 3)bXLWijk = the linear regression coefficient of the observation of the ijk-thsurvival rate till weaning (or kidding interval or doe reproductionindex or doe productivity index) on litter weight at weaningco-variate = number of livestock in a flock (Small Ruminant Unit)(PT)ij = the effect due to the interaction between parity and birth typeeijk = random error particularly to ijk-th observation45(b) Variables investigated on kidsBirth weightYijkl = m + Pi + Tj + Sk + co-variate + (PT)ij + (PS)ik + (TS)jk + eijklwhereYijkl = observation of an individual animal (ijkl th individual)m = the overall mean for the trait investigatedPi = the effect due to the i-th parity number (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)Tj = the effect due to the j-th type of birth (j = 1, 2, 3)Sk = the effect due to the k-th sex (k = 1, 2)co-variate = number of livestock in a flock (Small Ruminant Unit)(PT)ij = the effect due to the interaction between parity and type of(PS)ik = birth(TS)ik = the effect due to the interaction between parity and sexeijkl = the effect due to the interaction between type of birth and sexrandom error particularly to ijkl-th observationWeaning weight, Growth rate till weaning, Condition scoring, andLeg conformation indexYijkl = m + Pi + Tj + Sk + bXLBijkl + co-variate + (PT)ij + (PS)ik + (TS)jk + eijklwhereYijkl = observation of an individual animal (ijkl th individual)m = the overall mean for the trait investigatedPi = the effect due to the i-th parity number (i = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)Tj = the effect due to the j-th type of birth (j = 1, 2, 3)Sk = the effect due to the k-th sex (k = 1, 2)46bXLBijkl = the linear regression coefficient of the observation of the ijkl-th weaning weight (or growth rate till weaning, conditionscoring, leg conformation) on birth weightco-variate = number of livestock in a flock (Small Ruminant Unit)(PT)ij = the effect due to the interaction between parity and birth type(PS)ik = the effect due to the interaction between parity and sex(TS)ik = the effect due to the interaction between type of birth and sexeijkl = random error particularly to ijkl-th observationThe number of livestock in a flock (converted in Small Ruminant Unit) as asource of variance for all traits in this study was absorbed in the calculation ofstatistical analysis.474 RESULTS4.1 Reproduction Traits of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah Does4.1.1 Type of BirthThe least squares analysis of variance on type of birth (litter size) of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goat is presented in Table 4. The table shows that theeffect of parity on the type of birth of both breeds was significant (P<0.01).Table 4: Least squares analysis of variance for type of birth of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatSource of varianceParityd.f.5Residual167Peranakan Etawah goatMean Squared.f. Mean Square4 1.66**184 0.312.40**0.43** = P<0.01; * = P<0.05 and n.s. = not significant (P>0.05)Least squares means of factors affecting type of birth of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats are presented in Figure 5. The figure shows that the average littersizes of both breeds gradually tend to increase with the advance in parity up tothe 4th parity and then slightly decreased in the 5th parity.48Kacang goat3abc2a*bcabcc abaabcabcabp5 p6n = 10p4 n = 32 p3 p2 p1 1cPeranakan Etawah goatp1 p2 p3 p4 p50parityparityFigure 5: Average litter size of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats atdifferent parities.*Means, within the same classification followed by different letters aresignificantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are not.n = number of does4.1.2 Litter Weight at BirthThe least squares analysis of variance on litter weight at birth of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goat are presented in Table 5. The table shows that theeffect of interaction between parity and type of birth on litter weight at birth ofboth breeds was not significant (P>0.05). Effect of parity and type of birth onlitter weight at birth of both breeds was significant (P<0.01).49Table 5: Least squares analysis of variance for litter weight at birth of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatSource of varianced.f.Mean SquarePeranakan Etawah goatd.f.Mean SquareParity 5 1.60 ** 4 9.63 **Type of birth 2 78.81 ** 2 95.69 **Parity X Type of birth 10 0.46 n.s. 6 1.96 Residual 154 0.11 175 0.96 n.s.** = P<0.01; * = P<0.05 and n.s. = not significant (P>0.05)The least squares means of factors affecting litter weight at birth on Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats are presented in Table 6.Table 6: Least squares means + standard errors of factors affecting litterweight at birth of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatFactorsNo.Peranakan Etawah goatMean + S.E.No.Mean + S.E.Parity:Parity 1 20 2.91 + 0.26 a 33 3.75 + 0.21 aParity 2 39 3.35 + 0.20 ab 73 5.00 + 0.19 abParity 3 26 4.05 + 0.23 bcd 56 5.84 + 0.24 cParity 4 46 4.94 + 0.18 d 19 6.97 + 0.73 cParity 5 32 4.36 + 0.18 cd 8 5.48 + 0.14 abcParity 6 10 3.48 + 0.26 abc Single 45 2.15 + 0.05 a 82 3.50 + 0.08 aDouble 87 4.09 + 0.04 b 98 6.38 + 0.12 bTriplet 41 5.85 + 0.08 c 9 8.80 + 0.41 cType of birth:Means, within the same classification followed by different letters are significantlydifferent (P<0.05), otherwise they are not50Table 6 shows that the average litter weight at birth of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats increased with the advance in parity up to the 4th parity andslightly decreased thereafter.Average litter weight at birth of both breedsincreased progressively with the advance in type of birth.4.1.3 Litter Weight at WeaningThe least squares analysis of variance on litter weight at weaning of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goat are presented in Table 7. The table shows that theeffect of interaction between parity and type of birth on litter weight at weaningof both breeds was not significant (P>0.05). The effect of parity and type of birthon litter weight at weaning of both breeds was significant (P<0.01). Theregression of litter weight at birth on litter weight at weaning was significant(P≤0.01).Table 7:Least squares analysis of variance for litter weight at weaningof Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatSource of varianced.f.Peranakan Etawah goatMean Squared.f.Mean SquareParity 5 25.75 ** 4 118.42 **Type of birth 2 12.56 * 2 366.96 **Parity X Type of birth 10 11.69 n.s. 6 74.23 Regression on litter weight at birth 1 148.20 ** 1 122.38 174 41.89 Residual1539.39n.s.**** = P<0.01; * = P<0.05 and n.s. = not significant (P>0.05)The least squares means of factors affecting litter weight at weaning on Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats are presented in Table 8.51Table 8: Least squares means + standard errors of factors affecting litterweight at weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatFactorsNo.Peranakan Etawah goatMean + S.E.No.Mean + S.E.Parity:Parity 1 20 13.04 + 1.05 a 33 20.23 + 1.12 aParity 2 39 15.64 + 0.90 ab 73 24.81 + 1.01 abParity 3 26 19.08 + 1.16 b 56 28.90 + 1.18 bcParity 4 46 23.60 + 0.95 c 19 33.46 + 2.44 cParity 5 32 20.56 + 1.11 bc 8 27.86 + 3.78 abcParity 6 10 14.94 + 1.70 ab Single 45 10.50 + 0.19 a 82 19.22 + 0.24 aDouble 87 19.13 + 0.38 b 98 30.84 + 0.91 bTriplet 41 27.02 + 0.82 c 9 39.71 + 2.59 cType of birth:Regression on litterweight at birth4.4796 + 0.17453.3728 + 0.2637Means, within the same classification followed by different letters aresignificantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are notResults presented in Table 8 show that average litter weight at weaning of bothKacang and Peranakan Etawah goats increased with the advance in parity upto the 4th parity and slightly decreased thereafter. Average litter weight atweaning of both breeds increased progressively with the advance in type ofbirth. The table also revealed that for each 1 gram increase in litter weight atbirth there is an increase of 4.48 and 3.37 gram litter weight at weaning ofKacang and Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively.524.1.4 Survival Rate till WeaningThe least squares analysis of variance on survival rate till weaning of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats is presented in Table 9. The table shows that theeffect of interaction between parity and type of birth on survival rate till weaningof both breeds was not significant (P>0.05). The effect of type of birth onsurvival rate till weaning of both breeds was significant (P<0.01). Effect ofparity on survival rate till weaning of the Kacang goat was significant (P<0.01),but of the Peranakan Etawah goats was not significant (P>0.05).Table 9:Least squares analysis of variance for survival rate till weaningof Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatSource of varianced.f.Peranakan Etawah goatMean Squared.f.Mean SquareParity 5 194.79 ** Type of birth 2 7734.12 ** 2 12390.14Parity X Type of birth 10 34.44 n.s. 6 9.43Regression on litter weight 1 14390.05 ** 1 36151.074 45.67n.s.**n.s.**at weaningResidual15343.6417453.60** = P<0.01; * = P<0.05 and n.s. = not significant (P>0.05)The least squares means of factors affecting survival rate till weaning of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats are presented in Table 10. Table 10 shows thatthe average survival rate till weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsincreased with the advance in parity up to the 4th parity and then slightlydecreased. The average survival rate till weaning of both breeds decreasedprogressively with the advance in the type of birth.53Table 10: Least squares means + standard errors of factors affecting survivalrate till weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatKacang goatFactorsNo.Peranakan Etawah goatMean + S.E.No.Mean + S.E.Parity:Parity 1 20 94.17 + 3.26 a 33 89.40 + 3.61 aParity 2 39 95.72 + 2.09 a 73 91.78 + 2.19 abParity 3 26 97.22 + 1.97 a 56 93.16 + 2.28 bParity 4 46 97.29 + 1.56 a 19 93.86 + 3.43 bParity 5 32 96.24 + 2.15 a 8 91.67 + 5.45 abParity 6 10 91.67 + 5.69 b Single 45 100.00 + 0.00 a 82 100.00 + 0.00 aDouble 87 95.98 + 1.47 b 98 86.22 + 2.27 bTriplet 41 91.87 + 2.26 c 9 81.48 + 5.86 bType of birth:Regression on litterweight at weaning0.3919 + 0.13320.6433 + 0.1324Means, within the same classification followed by different letters aresignificantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are notThe result also demonstrated that survival rate till weaning of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats was significantly affected by litter weight at weaning.The result indicated that for each 1 gram increase in litter weight at weaningthere is an increase of 0.39 and 0.64 percent survival rate till weaning ofKacang and Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively.544.1.5 Kidding IntervalThe least squares analysis of variance on kidding interval of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goat is presented in Table 11. The table shows that effect ofinteraction between parity and type of birth factors on the kidding interval wasnot significant (P>0.05). The effect of parity and type of birth on kidding intervalof both breeds was significant (P<0.01). The effect of litter weight at weaning onthe kidding interval of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats was insignificant(P<0.05).Table 11: Least squares analysis of variance for kidding interval of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatSource of varianced.f.Peranakan Etawah goatMean Squared.f.Mean SquareParity 5 6562.77 ** 4 2354.02 **Type of birth 2 1817.13 ** 2 10806.93 **Parity X Type of birth 10 98.21 n.s. 6 179.27 n.s.Regression on litter weight 1 141.09 n.s. 1 676.83 n.s.153 287.95 174 5.39.18 at weaningResidual** = P<0.01; * = P<0.05 and n.s. = not significant (P>0.05)The least squares means of factors affecting kidding interval on Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats are presented in Table 12. The table shows that theaverage kidding interval of both breeds extended with the advance in parity upto the 4th parity and slightly shortened thereafter. The average kidding interval ofboth breeds shortened progressively with the advance in type of birth.55Table 12: Least squares means + standard errors of factors affectingkidding interval of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatFactorsNo.Peranakan Etawah goatMean + S.E.No.Mean + S.E.Parity:Parity 1 20 271.75 + 3.50 a 33 334.48 + 5.57 aParity 2 39 262.10 + 3.22 a 73 312.21 + 3.46 bParity 3 26 242.83 + 4.18 b 56 301.43 + 3.83 bParity 4 46 217.21 + 2.56 c 19 277.95 + 7.69 cParity 5 32 222.45 + 2.23 bc 8 290.75 + 11.22 bcParity 6 10 239.60 + 6.66 b Single 45 261.58 + 3.40 a 82 333.67 + 2.84 aDouble 87 237.99 + 2.61 b 98 292.48 + 2.38 bTriplet 41 221.90 + 3.35 c 9 254.67 + 7.48 cType of birth:Regression on litterweight at weaning- 2.1215 + 0.2549- 2.0253 + 0.2181Means, within the same classification followed by different letters are significantlydifferent (P<0.05), otherwise they are not4.1.6 Doe Productivity IndexThe least squares analysis of variance on doe productivity index (kg/doe/year)of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goat is presented in Table 13.The tableshows that effect of interaction between parity and type of birth factors on doeproductivity index of both breeds was not significant (P>0.05). Effect of parityand type of birth on doe productivity index of both breeds was significant(P<0.01). The regression on litter weight at weaning on doe productivity of bothbreeds was significant (P<0.01).56Table 13: Least squares analysis of variance for doe productivity indexof Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatSource of varianced.f.Peranakan Etawah goatMean Squared.f.Mean SquareParity 5 91.58 ** 4 18.10 **Type of birth 2 24.79 ** 2 148.77**Parity X Type of birth 10 7.83 n.s. 6 2.61Regression on litter weight 1 3692.05 ** 1 12111.82n.s.**at weaningResidual1534.871747.39** = P<0.01; * = P<0.05 and n.s. = not significant (P>0.05)The least squares means of factors affecting doe productivity index of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats are shown in Figure 6 and 7. Figure 6 shows thatthe average doe productivity index of both breeds increased with the advance inparity up to the 4th parity and slightly decreased thereafter. Figure 7 shows thatthe average doe productivity index of both breeds increased progressively withthe advance in type of birth.The result also demonstrated that doe productivity index of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats was significantly affected by litter weight at weaning.The result indicated that for each 1 kg increase in litter weight at weaning thereis an increase of 1.806 and 1.442 kg/doe/year doe productivity index of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively.57cd40bc30ababaap6p5 p4 p3 p2 n = 46 p1 10a*20bcbcdPeranakan Etawah goatKacang goat50p1 p2 p3 p4 p50parityparityFigure 6: Average doe productivity index of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats at different parities*Means, within the same classification followed by different letters aresignificantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are not.n = number of doesKacang goatPeranakan Etawah goat c60c50b40b30adouble triplet single doublesingle 10a20700Type of birthtripletType of birthFigure 7: Average doe productivity index of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats at different types of birth.*Means, within the same classification followed by different letters aresignificantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are not.n = number of does584.2Production Traits of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah Kids4.2.1 Birth WeightThe least squares analysis of variance for birth weight of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goat is presented in Table 14. The table shows that effect ofinteraction among parity, type of birth and sex, the effect of interaction betweenparity and type of birth and interaction between type of birth and sex on birthweight of both breeds were not significant (P>0.05). The effect of interactionbetween parity and sex factors on birth weight of Kacang goat was significant(P<0.01), however the effect was not significant (P>0.05) on birth weight of thePeranakan Etawah goat. The effect of parity, sex and type of birth on birthweight of both breeds was significant (P<0.01).Table 14: Least squares analysis of variance for birth weight of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatSource of varianced.f.Mean SquarePeranakan Etawah goatd.f.Mean SquareParity 6 0.70 ** 6 5.67 **Type of birth 2 0.66 ** 2 3.48 **Sex 1 2.87 ** 1 0.73 *Parity X Type of birth 12 0.03 n.s. 7 0.19 n.s.Parity X Sex 6 0.08 ** 6 0.11 n.sType of birth X Sex 2 0.01 n.s. 2 0.10 n.s.Parity X Type of birth X Sex 12 0.04 n.s. 7 0.20 n.s.Residual 620 0.03 593 0.12 ** = P<0.01; * = P<0.05 and n.s. = not significant (P>0.05)The least squares means of factors affecting birth weight of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats are presented in Figure 8 and 9.594Peranakan Etawah goatKacang goatmalefemaleba3ef*2cbcefdfgfbcfab eebhcffdcdffaeae10p1p2p3p4p5p6p7parityp1p2p3p4p5p6p7iFigure 8: Average birth weight at of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats atdifferent parities and sex*Means, within the same classification followed by different letters aresignificantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are not.Kacang goat4Peranakan Etawah goatbc3b1c2single double triplet single doublea*a0Type of birthtripletType of birthFigure 9: Average birth weight of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats atdifferent types of birth*Means, within the same classification followed by different letters aresignificantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are not.n = number of kids60The least square means as shown in Figure 8 show that average birth weight ofmale and female Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats increased with theadvance in parity up to the 4th parity and slightly decreased thereafter.Average birth weights of male goats tend to be higher than those of femalegoats in all parities. Figure 9 shows that average birth weight of both breedsdecreased with the advance in type of birth.4.2.2 Weaning WeightThe least squares analysis of variance of weaning weight of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats are presented in Table 15.Table 15: Least squares analysis of variance for weaning weight of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatSource of varianced.f.Peranakan Etawah goatMean Squared.f.Mean SquareParity 6 3.24 ** Type of birth 2 3.13 ** 2 35.24 **Sex 1 14.19 ** 1 9.15 **Parity X Type of birth 12 0.06 n.s. 7 1.35 n.s.Parity X Sex 6 0.49 n.s. 6 2.54 n.s.Type of birth X Sex 2 1.50 * 2 0.53 n.s.Parity X Type of birth X Sex 12 0.39 n.s. 7 0.82 n.s.Regression on birth weight 1 88.49 ** 1 193.21 619 0.43 Residual6 13.79 **592**1.23** = P<0.01; * = P<0.05 and n.s. = not significant (P>0.05)The table shows that the effect of interaction among parity, type of birth andsex, the effect of interaction between parity and type of birth and between parityand sex on weaning weight of both breeds were not significant (P>0.05). Theeffect of interaction between type of birth and sex on weaning weight of Kacang61goat was significant (P<0.05), however the effect was not significant (P>0.05)on the weaning weight of the Peranakan Etawah goat. The effect of parity, typeof birth and sex on weaning weight of both breeds was significant (P<0.01). Theregression on birth weight was by both breeds significant (P<0.01).The least squares means of factors affecting weaning weight of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats are presented in Figures 10 and 11.25Peranakan Etawah goat20accddeacdabb15bc*cdeecdab 10an=55Kacang goatp1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 p7 p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 p70parityparityFigure10: Average weaning weight at of Kacang Peranakan Etawah goats atdifferent parities*Means, within the same classification followed by different letters aresignificantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are not.n = number of kids6225Kacang goatmalefemalePeranakan Etawah goata20cbdef15a*10becd fdouble triplet50singletype of birthsingledoubletriplettype of birthFigure 11: Average weaning weight of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsat different types of birth and sex*Means, within the same classification followed by different letters aresignificantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are not.The least square means as shown in Figure 10 show that the average weaningweight of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats increased with the advance inparity up to the 4th parity and slightly decreased thereafter. Figure 11 showsthat the average weaning weight of both breeds decreased with the advance intype of birth. The average weaning weight of male goats tends to be higher thanthose of female goats in all types of birth.The results also reveal that the weaning weight of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats was significantly affected by birth weight. The results indicate thatfor each 1 gram increase in birth weight there is an increase of 3.71 and 11.96gram weaning weight of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively.634.2.3 Growth Rate till WeaningThe least squares analysis of variance on growth rate till weaning of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats is presented in Table 16 and shows the sameresult as for the weaning weight. The table shows that the effect of interactionamong parity, type of birth and sex, the effect of interaction between parity andtype of birth and between parity and sex on growth rate till weaning of bothbreeds was not significant (P>0.05). The effect of interaction between the typeof birth and sex on growth rate till weaning of the Peranakan Etawah goat wasnot significant (P>0.05), however it was significant (P<0.05) on growth rate tillweaning of the Kacang goat. The effect of parity, type of birth and birth weighton growth rate till weaning of both breeds was significant (P<0.05). Theregression on birth weight was by both breeds significant (P<0.01).Table 16: Least squares analysis of variance for growth rate till weaning ofKacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatSource of varianced.f.Peranakan Etawah goatMean Squared.f.Mean SquareParity 6 224.98 ** 6 957.30 **Type of birth 2 217.61 ** 2 2447.32 **Sex 1 985.68 ** 1 635.28 **Parity X Type of birth 12 40.71 n.s. 7 93.85 n.s.Parity X Sex 6 34.16 n.s. 6 176.12 n.s.Type of birth X Sex 2 104.71 * 2 36.94 n.s.Parity X Type of birth X Sex 12 27.30 n.s. 7 69.58 n.s.Regression on birth weight 1 1931.13 ** 1 2191.71 Residual61930.13592**69.58** = P<0.01; * = P<0.05 and n.s. = not significant (P>0.05)The least square means of factors affecting growth rate till weaning of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats are presented in Figure 12 and 13.64Kacang goatPeranakan Etawah goat140cacdac120abb10080bc*dececdab60an = 12 p2p3 p1 2040acp4 p5 p6 p7 p1 p2 p3 p4 p5 p6 p70parityparityFigure 12: Average growth rate till weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats at different parities:*Means, within the same classification followed by different letters aresignificantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are not.n = number of kidsKacang goat140maleFemale120Peranakan Etawah goatabcedf10080a*bcdef6040200singledoubleType of birthtripletsingledoubletripletType of birthFigure 13: Average growth rate till weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats at different types of birth and sex*Means, within the same classification followed by different letters aresignificantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are not.65Figure 12 shows that the average growth rate till weaning of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats increased with the advance in parity up to the 4thparity and slightly decreased thereafter.Figure 13 shows that the averagegrowth rate till weaning of male goats tends to be higher than those of femalegoats in all types of birth. The average growth rate till weaning of both breedsdecreased with the advance in the type of birth. The results also reveal that thebirth weight has a significant effect on growth rate till weaning of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats. The results indicate that for each 1 gram increase inbirth weight there is an increase of 22.56 and 11.96 gram growth rate tillweaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively.4.2.4 Body Condition ScoreThe least squares analysis of variance on body condition score of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats is presented in Table 17.Table 17: Least squares variance analysis of body condition score of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatSource of varianced.f.Peranakan Etawah goatMean Squared.f.Mean SquareParity 6 5.15 ** 6 957.30 **Type of birth 2 4.26 ** 2 2447.32 **Sex 1 0.27 n.s. 1 635.28 **Parity X Type of birth 12 0.64 ** 7 93.85 n.s.Parity X Sex 6 0.34 n.s. 6 176.12 n.s.Type of birth X Sex 2 1.19 * 2 36.94 n.s.Parity X Type of birth X Sex 12 0.33 n.s. 7 69.58 n.s.Regression on birth weight 1 6.25 ** 1 2191.71 619 0.25 Residual592** = P<0.01; * = P<0.05 and n.s. = not significant (P>0.05)69.58**66The table shows that the effects of interactions for body condition score wereonly significant between parity and type of birth (P<0.01) and between type ofbirth and sex (P<0.05) and only for Kacang goats. For Peranakan Etawahgoats the effects of the interactions between the sources of variance were notsignificant (P>0.05). The effect of birth weight on body condition score of bothbreeds was significant (P<0.01). The effect of parity and type of birth on bodycondition score of both breeds was significant (P<0.01). The difference betweenmales and females was only on the body condition score of Peranakan Etawahgoat significant (P<0.01).The least square means factor affecting body condition scoring of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats presented in Figure 14 and 15.Kacang goat4Peranakan Etawah goatsingledoubletripledg3cdccabab*2efffbbhc bcecabfeabceaabihabcicabcgdiii1jbcci0p1p2p3p4parityp5p6p7p1p2p3p4p5p6p7parityFigure 14: Average body condition score of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats at different parities and types of birth*Means, within the same classification followed by different lettersare significantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are not.67Peranakan Etawah goatmalefemaleKacang goat3a*aabb2ccccedf10singledoubletripletsingleType of birthdoubletripletType of birthFigure 15: Average body condition score of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats at different types of birth and sex*Means, within the same classification followed by different lettersare significantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are not.Figure 14 shows that the average body condition scoring of both breeds for allbirth types tends to increase with the advance in parity up to the 4th parity andslightly decrease thereafter. Figure 15 shows that the average body conditionscoring of male and female of both breeds tends to decrease with the advancein type of birth. The average body condition scoring of male goats in all birthtypes was higher than that of female goats. The results also demonstrated thatthe body condition scoring of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats significantlywas effected by birth weight. The results indicate that for each 1 gram increasein birth weight there is an increase of 1.89 and 1.75 body condition scoring ofKacang and Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively.684.2.5 Leg Conformation IndexThe least squares analysis of variance on leg conformation index of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats is presented in Table 18. For the Kacang goats,the table shows that the effect of interaction between parity and sex on the legconformation index was not significant (P>0.05). The effect of interactionbetween parity and birth type, and effect of interaction between birth type andsex was significant (P<0.05). For the Peranakan Etawah goat, the table showsthat the effects of interactions among parity, birth type and sex on legconformation index were not significant (P>0.05). The effect of parity and birthtype on leg conformation index of both breeds was significant (P<0.01). Thedifference between males and females was only significant on the legconformation index of Peranakan Etawah goat (P<0.01). Table 18 alsoindicated that the leg conformation index of both breeds was significantly(P<0.01) affected by birth weight.Table 18: Least squares analysis of variance for leg conformation index ofKacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsKacang goatSource of varianced.f.Peranakan Etawah goatMean Squared.f.Mean SquareParity 6 340.83 ** Type of birth 2 425.58 ** 2 274.18 **Sex 1 50.67 n.s. 1 215.06 **Parity X Type of birth 12 63.81 * 7 32.28 n.s.Parity X Sex 6 57.44 n.s. 6 17.85 n.s.Type of birth X Sex 2 121.05 * 2 13.04 n.s.Parity X Type of birth X Sex 12 51.09 n.s. 7 42.03 n.s.Regression on birth weight 1 1704.83 ** 1 3354.36 Residual61932.566 81.86 **592**36.72** = P<0.01; * = P<0.05 and n.s. = not significant (P>0.05)The least square means factor affecting the leg conformation index of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats is presented in Figure 16 and 17.69140120singledoubletripletKacanggoat160aa*bddccaacbbbcbaPeranakan E ahgoattawaeeefaaaabaabcabbaaabaaabdd100e806040200p1p2p3p4p5p6p7p1p2parityp3p4p5p6p7parityFigure 16: Average leg conformation index of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats at different parities and types of birth*Means, within the same classification followed by different lettersare significantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are not.140a*bmalefemaleKacang goat160Peranakan Etawah goataabcdbcacde120100806040200singledoubeType of birthtripletsingledoubetripletType of birthFigure 17: Average leg conformation index of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats at different types of birth and sex*Means, within the same classification followed by different letters aresignificantly different (P<0.05), otherwise they are not.70Figure 16 shows that the average leg conformation index of both breeds for allbirth types tend to increase with the advance in parity up to the 4th parity andslightly decrease thereafter.Figure 17 shows that average leg conformation index of males and females ofboth breeds tend to decrease with the advance in type of birth. The average legconformation index of male goats in all birth types was higher than that onfemale goats.The results also demonstrated that the leg conformation index of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats was significantly affected by birth weight. The resultsindicate that for each 1 gram increase in birth weight there is an increase of21.36 and 8.47 leg conformation index of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats, respectively.7155.1DISCUSSIONReproduction Traits of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah Does5.1.1 Type of BirthThe average litter size of Kacang goats in this study was 1.93 kids (SE = 0.13).This value is close to those reported by Sumarti (1991), Amsar et al. (1992)and Sodiq et al. (1997), which ranged from 1.92 to 1.95 kids. The average littersize of Peranakan Etawah goat in this study was 1.69 kids (SE = 0.15). Thisvalue is close to those obtained by Astuti et al. (1984), Sodiq et al. (1998),Adiati et al. (1998) and Setiadi et al. (1999), which ranged from 1.65 to 1.82kids.The values reported in this study are higher than those reported bySubandriyo et al. (1986) and Bell et al. (1982) whose studies in West Javashowed that averages of the litter size of Peranakan Etawah goat was 1.45kids.Least squares analysis of variance presented in Table 4 revealed that the littersize at birth was significantly (P<0.01) affected by parity. These results agreewith Amoah and Gelaye (1990), Awemu et al. (1999, 2002), Crepaldi et al.(1999), Song et al. (2001), Galina et al. (1995), Odubate (1996, 2000), Silva etal. (1998), Thumrong et al. (2000), Alexandre et al. (2001), Marai et al. (2002)and Armbruster and Peter (1993), who found that the effect of parity wassignificant on litter size of the goat.Average litter sizes of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goat (Figure 5) graduallytend to increase with the advance in parity up to the 4th parity and then slightlydecreased in the 5th parity. Similar trends were also obtained by someresearchers. Results of Mellado et al. (1991) studies on native goats in Mexicodemonstrated that the litter size was positively correlated with parity with meanlitter size for the first, second, third and fourth parity at 1.5, 1,5, 1.8 and 1.8 kids72per kidding. In Red Sakoto does (Awemu et al., 1999) found the litter size at 1,2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 parity were 1.8, 2.0, 1.8, 1.8, 1.9 and 1.8, respectively. Das andSendalo (1990) reported that prolificacy of meat goats in Malya, Tanzania,tends to increase from the first parity and a reduction in the sixth parity. In aresearch of Creole goats Alexandre et al. (2001) found that the litter size at birthincreased from 1.65 to 2.35 total kids born, from the first to the seventhkiddings, respectively. Litter size and multiple birth rate increased from 140-148and 39-45% for parity 1-3 to 163-167 and 55-60% for parity greater than 3(Thumrong et al., 2000).This study shows that the litter size increased with parity, with the largest littersat the fifth parity. These findings are consistent with those of Wilson and Light(1986), Das and Sendalo (1990) and Awemu et al. (2002). Prolificay wasinfluenced by parity with the least square means increasing from 1.2 kids ingoats kidding for the first time, to 1.5 kids in second parity and about 1.7 kids ingoats of 4th parity (Crepaldi et al., 1999). Lower prolificacy of primiparous doesmay be associated with an underdeveloped state of the reproductive featuresrequired for successive litter bearing compared with those of multiparous doesthat have reached physiological maturity.5.1.2 Litter Weight at BirthResults of this study (Table 5) show that litter weight at birth of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats was significantly (P<0.01) affected by parity. Thisconfirms the findings of Devendra and Burn (1983), Husain et al. (1996),Mellado et al. (1991) and Marai et al. (2002) who reported that there was arelation between parity and litter weight at birth of the goat. Figures presentedin Table 6 demonstrated that averages of litter weight at birth of both breedsincreased with the advance in parity up to the 4th parity and slightly decreasedthereafter. Similar trends were also obtained by Mellado et al. (1991) whosestudies on native goats in Mexico demonstrated that birth weights were73positively correlated with parity. Husain et al. (1996) reported that there was atendency to increasing weight with the advance of parity at least up to the 3rdparity. This may be attributed to physiological maturity of older does and theirability to provide enough milk for the kids.Results of variance analysis presented in Table 5 revealed that the litter weightat birth of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goat was significantly (P<0.01)affected by the type of birth. This study agrees with Amoah and Gelaye (1990),Ikwuegbu et al. (1995) and Das et al. (1990). Averages of litter weight at birthof both breeds (Table 6) increased progressively with the advance in type ofbirth. This is possibly related to the number of litter and birth weight of the kid.Litter weight at birth for triplets of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goat (5.9 and8.8 kg) tended to be heavier compared to those of twins (4.1 and 6.4 kg) andsingles (2.2 and 3.5 kg), respectively.5.1.3 Litter Weight at WeaningThe least squares analysis of variance presented in Table 7 revealed that thelitter weight at weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goat was significantly(P<0.01) affected by parity. This results are in agreement with other findings(Husain et al., 1996; Mellado et al., 1991; Osinowo et al., 1992; Marai et al.,2002). Figures in Table 8 show that averages of litter weight at weaning of bothbreeds tend to increased with the advance in parity up to the 4th parity andslightly decreased thereafter. As already mentioned this may be attributed tophysiological maturity of older does and their ability to provide enough milk forthe kids. Coffey (2002) reported that weaning weights are crucial and indicatethe milking ability of the herd. Another research reported that the weaningweight would reflect mothering ability of does as well as the inherent growthpotential (Das and Sendalo, 1990).The effect of birth type on litter weight at weaning of kids agrees with the resultspublished by Das et al. (1990), Okello (1993), Husain et al. (1996), Okello74(1993), Kochapakdee et al. (2000), Alexandre et al. (1999), Mourad (1993),Nawarz and Khalil (1998) and Osinowo et al. (1992). Table 7 revealed that thelitter weight at weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goat was significantly(P<0.01) affected by type of birth. Averages of litter weight at weaning of bothbreeds increased progressively with the advance in type of birth. This ispossibly related to the number of litter at weaning and the weaning weight of thekid. Litter weight at weaning of triplets for Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goat(10.5 and 19.2 kg) tended to be heavier compared to those of twins (19.1 and30.8 kg) and singles (27 and 39.7 kg), respectively.Birth weight of kids is considered to be a very important criterion as it is stronglycorrelated with the adult body weight and hence a determinant factor for overallproductivity (Devendra and Burn, 1983; Boggs and Merkel, 1993). Table 8shows that the regression of litter weight at birth on litter weight at weaning washighly significant (P≤0.01). The results demonstrated that for each 1 gramincrease in litter weight at birth there is an increase of 4.48 and 3.37 gram litterweight at weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively.5.1.4 Survival Rate till WeaningThe overall survival rate till weaning of Kacang goats was close to valuesreported in studies carried out in villages of Central Java (Astuti et al., 1984;Amsar et al., 1992; Sodiq et al., 1997). The overall survival rate till weaning ofPeranakan Etawah goat was close to values reported by Bell et al. (1982) andAnggraeni et al. (1995).The least squares analysis of variance presented in Table 9 shows that thesurvival rate till weaning was significantly (P<0.01) affected by type of birth.These findings are in agreement with Devendra and Burns (1983), Husain et al.(1995), Mtenga et al. (1992) and Okello (1993), Awemu et al. (1999, 2002),Alexandre et al. (1999) and Madibela et al. (2002).75Averages of survival rate till weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats(Table 10) demonstrated that they decreased progressively with the advance inthe type of birth. Results of Husain et al. (1995) and Okello (1993) found thatsingle kids always had a higher survival rate than twins and triplets. Survivalrate till weaning tended to decrease with larger size litters which also agreeswith the observations of Awemu et al. (1999) and Mtenga et al. (1992). Kidsfrom multiple births are often weak at birth as a result of physiological starvationin the uterus and lower energy reserves. Curtis (1969) concluded that animalswith low birth weights had lower energy reserve and were therefore less able towithstand a harsh environment; also if the dam has a poor milk yield, she maybe unable to provide adequate nutrition for twins, thus increasing theirsusceptibility to disease.The least squares analysis of variance presented in Table 9 shows that thesurvival rate till weaning of Kacang goats was significantly (P<0.01) affected byparity. The least squares means (Table 10) demonstrated that averages ofsurvival rate till weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats increasedwith the advance in parity up to the 4th parity and then slightly decreased.Results of Husain et al. (1995) concluded that the survivability increasedgradually with the increase in the parity number having the highest survival ratein the 5th parity. Awemu et al. (1999) reported that the mortality rate generallydecreased with the increasing parities.This may be attributed to thephysiological maturity of older does and their ability to provide enough milk forthe kids. Awemu et al. (2002) working on Red Sokoto goats found that themortality tended to decrease as parity increased. The same results were alsoreported by Wilson et al. (1985) who identified that the parity of dam was asignificant source of variation in kid mortality.The significant effect of the litter weight at weaning on survival rate till weaningwas also demonstrated in this study (Table 9). Similar trends on the effect oflitter weight at weaning on survival rate till weaning of goats were also obtainedby Husain et al. (1995), Husain et al. (1994), Awemu et al. (1999), Awemu et al.(2002). Table 9 revealed that regression of survival rate till weaning on litterweight at weaning was highly significant (P<0.01). The result(Table 10)76indicated that for each 1 gram increase in litter weight at weaning, there is anincrease of 0.39 and 0.64 percent survival rate till weaning of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats, respectively. Results of Husain et al. (1994)investigated on Black Bengal kids found that the survival rates were affected bybirth weight of kids and milk yield of dams.Awemu et al. (2002) working on Red Sokoto goats found that the mortalitytended to decrease with birth weight. Other researchers reported that due to lowbirth weight and poor nutrition, the mortality rate is high (Banerjee andBanerjee, 2000). Mortality generally decreased as the birth weight of kidsincreased (Awemu et al., 1999). Bradford et al. (1983) reported that the littersize affected survival mainly through its effect on birth weight. Lower birthweight and lack of husbandry knowledge were considered the main factorsresponsible for higher kid mortality (Husain et al., 1995). Mtenga et al. (1992)working on Small East African goats reported that the lowest pre-weaningmortality rate occurred in animals with a birth weight of greater than 2.6 kg. Birthweight had a significant effect on the mortality rate of kids, the mortality ratedecreased with increasing birth weight. Results of Rattner et al. (1994) revealedthat the low birth weight of the goat resulted in increased mortality. Bradford etal. (1983) reported that the litter size affected survival mainly through its effecton birth weight. Lower birth weight and lack of husbandry knowledge wereconsidered the main factors responsible for higher kid mortality (Husain et al.,1995). These results are in agreement with the observations of Curtis (1969)and Mtenga et al. (1994) that animals with low birth weight have lower energyreserves and are therefore less able to withstand harsh environmentalconditions.5.1.5 Kidding IntervalAverage kidding intervals of the Kacang goat (Table 12) were close to valuesreported by Sumarti (1991), Amsar et al. (1992) and Sodiq et al. (1997).Average kidding interval of the Peranakan Etawah goat (Table 12) was close to77values reported by Bell et al. (1982), Sandhi (1992), Sodiq et al. (1998) andSetiadi et al. (1999).Analysis of variance for kidding intervals presented in Table 11 revealed thatthe effect of parity was significant (P<0.01). Similar results were also obtainedby Awemu et al. (1999, 2000), Odubote (1990, 2002), Christopher (2001),Greyling (2000), Das (1993), Amoah et al. (1996) and Das (1993).The least squares means (Table 12) demonstrated that averages of kiddinginterval of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats extended with the advance inparity up to the 4th parity and were slightly shortened thereafter. Results ofAwemu et al. (2002) studies on Red Sokoto goats concluded that as parityincreased, so the kidding interval decreased. Amoah et al. (1996) reported thatthe gestation period increased slightly with increasing parity (b = 0.22 d/parity).Results of Odubote’s (1990, 2000) studies on West African Dwarf demonstratedthat there was a significant decrease in the kidding interval from the fifth parity.These results are also consistent with the report of Wilson and Light (1986) thatfemales at earlier parities take longer than older ones to return to reproductivestatus. Das (1993) demonstrated that old does (3-4 year) tended to have lowerkidding intervals than the younger (1-2 years) and older does (>5 years). This isprobably due to the reproductive physiology function being more active in 3-4years old does compared to lower activity in younger and older does.Results of variance analysis (Table 11) revealed that the kidding interval wassignificantly (P<0.01) affected by the type of birth. The same results were alsoreported by Christopher (2001), Greyling (2000), Amoah et al. (1996), Öztürkand Akta (1996) and Akusu and Ajala (2000). Figures presented in Table 12demonstrated that the averages of the kidding intervals of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats shortened progressively with the advance in the typeof birth. Results of Christopher (2001) found that the does with multiple birthstend to have a shorter gestation length with 1 to 2 days difference betweentwins and triplets. Amoah et al. (1996) reported that the gestation perioddecreased as the litter size of the doe increased (b = -0.92 d/kid). Results ofÖztürk and Akta (1996) studies on Merino sheep showed that for triple births78the gestation length (153.7 + 0.73 days) was longer than for twin births (152.8 +0.16), and twins were carried longer than single lambs (151.6 + 0.22 days).Akusu and Ajala (2000) investigated on West African Dwarf goats concludedthat does with single kids had a longer gestation than those with twins andtriplets.The length of gestation in goats is fairly constant at 146 to 151 days (Ensmingerand Parker, 1986). In Boer goats Greyling (2000) reported that there was nosignificant difference in the gestation length between does bearing singletons ortriplets. There was no significant difference in the post partum anoestrus intervalfor does giving birth to different numbers of offspring (Greyling, 2000). Thisstudy (Table 11) shows that the effect of litter weight at weaning wasinsignificant (P>0.05) on the kidding interval of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats.5.1.6 Doe Productivity IndexOne of the most favorable attributes of goats as meat producing animals is theirhigh rate of reproduction (Wildeus, 1996; Naude and Hofmeyr, 1981) anddetermined by the number of progeny delivered in a given period of time(Greyling, 2000). The overall doe productivity index (kg/doe/year) of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats was 29.8 (SE = 1.9) and 33.7 (SE = 2.8)kg/doe/year, respectively. The values reported in this study are higher thanthose reported by Sutama (1995), Anggraeni et al. (1995) and Sodiq et al.(1998). Ingo (1999), Awemu et al. (1999), Bearden and Fuquay (2000) and Das(1993) demonstrated that the environmental factors exerted a significantinfluence on the productivity.Results of variance analysis (Table 13) show that doe productivity index(kg/doe/year) of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah was significantly (P<0.01)affected by type of birth. Similar results also were reported by Awemu et al.(2002) that the type of birth of goat significantly influenced the productivity. The79results (Figure 7) demonstrated that averages of doe productivity index of bothbreeds increased progressively with the advance in type of birth. Awemu et al.(1999) reported that increasing litter size at birth and at weaning can improvethe productivity of goats. Awemu et al. (2002) found that the effect of type ofbirth was highly substantial in goats, with quadruplets births producing 32.8 kgmore meat at weaning than single births.The productivity of goat depends on the number of litter at birth, survival rate tillweaning and interval between kiddings (Sutama, 1995; Gatenby, 1995). Theeffect of the type of birth was highly substantial in goats, with multiple birthsproducing more than single births and the prolonged kiddings’ interval wasresponsible for a decrease in reproduction and productivity of goats (Awemu etal., 1999). The interval between parturition and the first post partum oestrus isan important trait which contributes to the productive efficiency (Greyling, 2000).The least squares analysis of variance for doe productivity index of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah (Table 13) revealed that the doe productivity index wassignificantly (P<0.01) affected by parity. Greyling (2000) and Marai et al. (2002)reported that the productive performance is dependent on the interaction ofgenetic and environmental factors and the effects of parity were significant.Results of Ndlovu and Simela (1996) showed that due to the slow growth ratesand long kidding intervals the flock productivity in terms of weaned live kidweight (kg) per doe per year was low. Awemu et al. (2002) reported that theparity significantly influenced the productivity index.Data presented in Figure 6 demonstrated that the averages of doe productivityindex of both breeds increased with the advance in parity up to the 4th parityand slightly decreased thereafter. Results of Steve and Marco (2001) showedthat the goat productivity may be positively correlated with maternal age, butdecreased slightly after 9 years of age. It was indicated that the relationshipbetween age and kid production was curvilinear. Awemu et al. (2002)investigation on Red Sakoto goats found that the productivity indexes(kg/doe/year) in parity 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 were 20.9, 21.4, 22.5, 23.6, 27.9 and33.4 kg, respectively.80The lower doe productivity index may be related to the interval betweenkiddings which is consistent with the report of Awemu et al. (1999), Wilson andLight (1986), Wilson et al. (1985) and Mtenga et al. (1994). This study revealedthat parity significantly affected the kidding interval of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats (Table 11) which generally decreased with parity till the 4th parity.The kidding interval of Kacang goat in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th paritieswere 271, 262, 243, 217, 223 and 239 days, respectively (Table 12). Thekidding interval of Peranakan Etawah goats in the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th paritieswere 334, 312, 301, 278 and 291 days, respectively (Table 12). The kiddinginterval itself has been reported to be affected by a number of environmentalfactors including parity (Wilson and Light, 1986; Mtenga et al., 1994). Wilsonand Light (1986) reported that females at early parities take longer than olderanimals to return to their reproductive status. Wilson et al. (1985) have shownthat prolonged kidding intervals were responsible for a decrease in the overallproductivity of goats and sheep on a Masai group ranch in South CentralKenya.Boggs and Merkel (1993) and Das and Sendalo (1990) reported that weaningweight can be used to estimate growth rate, and weaning weight is an excellentindicator of productivity because it reflects both litter size, mothering ability andmilking ability. The result of variance analysis presented in Table 13 revealedthat doe productivity index of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats wassignificantly (P<0.01) affected by litter weight at weaning. Similar results werealso obtained by Triwulaningsih (1989), Sutama (1995) and Awemu et al.(1999), who reported that the productivity of goats can be improved byincreasing litter at weaning. The result indicated that for each 1 kg increase inlitter weight at weaning there is an increase of 1.806 and 1.442 kg/doe/year doeproductivity index of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively.815.2Production Traits of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah Kids5.2.1 Birth WeightThe overall birth weight of Kacang goats was 2.1 kg (SE = 0.02). This value isclose to those reported by Astuti et al. (1984) and Setiadi and Sitorus (1984).The overall birth weight of Peranakan Etawah goats was 3.2 kg (SE = 0.03).This value is close to those reported by Triwulaningsih (1989) and Sutama etal. (1995).The least squares analysis of variance for birth weight of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats presented in Table 14 revealed that the birth weightwas significantly (P<0.01) affected by parity.This confirms the findings ofHusain et al. (1996), Mellado et al. (1991), Osinowo et al. (1992), Marai et al.(2002), who reported that the effects of parity was significant at litter weight atbirth of goat.Averages of birth weight of males and females of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats (Figure 8) increased with the advance in parity up to the 4th parityand slightly decreased thereafter. Results of Husain et al. (1996) revealed thatthere was a tendency to increasing weight with the advance of parity at least upto the 3rd parity. On native goats in Mexico Mellado et al. (1991) demonstratedthat birth weights were positively correlated with parity. This may be attributedto physiological maturity of older does and their ability to provide enough milkfor the kids.The analysis of variance for birth weight of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats (Table 14) revealed that birth weight was significantly (P<0.01) affectedby the type of birth. These results were similar with Amoah and Gelaye (1990),Amoah et al. (1996), Song et al. (2001), Nawarz and Khalil (1998), Mourad andAnous (1998), Das et al. (1993, 1990), Okello (1993) and (Husain et al., 1996),Kochapakdee et al. (2000), Alexandre et al. (1999), Ikwuegbu et al. (1995),82Mourad (1993), who reported that the birth weight of goats was significantlyaffected by the type of birth.The results (Figure 9) demonstrated that averages of the birth weight of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats tend to decrease with the advance in type ofbirth. Findings of Amoah and Gelaye (1990) showed that there was a negativeassociation between birth weight and litter size. Birth weight could be describedby the multiple regression equation: BW = 2.7564 – 0.3316LS + 0.1863BPwhere BP is the period of breeding. Amoah et al. (1996) found that the birthweight decreased with the litter size by approximately 0.45 kg/kid. Song et al.(2001) reported that the mean birth weight of a kid of the Korean native goatwas 2.04 kg with a variety 2.28, 2.11 and 1.64 kg for single, twin and triplet overof birth type, respectively.Averages of birth weight of goats tend to decrease with the advance in the typeof birth (Figure 9), and similar trends have been reported elsewhere. Nawarzand Khalil (1998) and Das et al. (1993, 1990), Okello (1993), Husain et al.(1996), Kochapakdee et al. (2000), Ikwuegbu et al. (1995), Mourad (1993)concluded that generally the birth weight decreased with the increase in littersize. Mourad and Anous (1998) reported the birth weights of kids in theCommon African and Alpine crossbred goats were 3.1, 2.8, 2.3 and 2.3 kg forsingle, twin, triplets and quadruplets, respectively. Alexandre et al. (1999)studies on Guadeloupean Creole goats reported that body weight at birth was15% higher for single than for multiple kids.Figure 8 shows that birth weight of male goats in all parities of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats tends to be higher than those of female goats. Resultsof Okello (1993) working with Mubende goats reported that male kids wereheavier than females. Result of Kochapakdee et al. (2000) working with nativeThai and their crosses with Anglo Nubian goats showed that male kids weresignificantly heavier at birth and at weaning compared with female animals (2.1vs. 1.9kg and 8.2 vs. 7.4 kg) and single kids were also significantly heavier atbirth and at weaning compared with multiple kids (2.1 vs. 1.9 kg and 9.2 vs. 7.2kg).83Alexandre et al. (1999) studies on Guadeloupean Creole goats reported thatbody weight at birth was 1.73 + 0.34 kg. Birth weight was 10% higher for malesthan for females. Das (1993) investigations on Blended goats revealed thatmale kids were heavier at birth than females kids. Ikwuegbu et al. (1995)studies on African Dwarf goats under village conditions showed that the birthweight was affected by sex of kid and birth type. Mourad (1993) showed thatsingle born kids were heavier than twins in Alpine and Zaraibi goats. Results ofZhou et al. (2003) revealed that the body weight of male Inner Mongoliacashmere goats was significantly heavier than females.Marai et al. (2002) studies of reproductive traits of Nubian goats found that theeffect of sex was significant at litter weight at birth. A survey of goats showedthat both sex and breed had significant effects for live weight (Lusweti, 2000).Amoah et al. (1996) found that birth weight was varied, and males were heavierthan female kids. Alexandre et al. (1999) working on Creole goats reported thatbody weight at birth and body weight at weaning was higher for males than forfemales. Findings of Silva et al. (1998) showed that kid birth weight of theAlpine dairy goats was varied, 3.3 – 4.5 kg with males and 2.5-3.7 kg withfemales. The male kids had higher birth weight than female kids (Nawarz andKhalil, 1998). The same results were also reported by Gerstmayr and Horst’s(1995) studies on Angora goats and concluded that male kids were heavier,especially at birth, than female kids.5.2.2 Weaning WeightThe overall weaning weight of the Kacang goat was 9.5 kg (SE = 0.11). Thisvalue is close to those reported by Ngadiono et al. (1984) and Setiadi andSitorus (1984). The overall birth weight of the Peranakan Etawah goat was 17.8kg (SE = 0.0.28).The values reported in his study are higher than thosereported by Setiadi and Sitorus (1984), Setiadi et al. (1987), Setiadi (1989),Triwulaningsih (1989) and Sutama et al. (1995). This value may be due to the84Peranakan Etawah goat in the village breeding centre at Purworejo havingbetter management.The least squares analysis of variance for the the weaning weight of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah (Table 15) revealed that the weaning weight wassignificantly (P<0.01) affected by parity. Averages of weaning weight of bothbreeds (Figure 10) increased with the advance in parity up to the 4th parity andslightly decreased thereafter. The effect of parity was significant at weaningweight of goat.This was also demonstrated by Marai et al. (2002) whoinvestigated on Nubian goats and Gebrelul et al. (1994) on Alpine, Nubian andcrossbred and also Ikwuegbu et al. (1995) on African Dwarf goats. Anotherresearcher also found the similar trends that weaning weights were significantlyaffected by parity and the weaning weight increased consistently from the firstto fifth parity (Osinowo et al., 1992). This may be attributed to the physiologicalmaturity of older does and their ability to provide enough milk for the kids.Some researchers (Zeng and Escobar, 1995; Haenlein, 2000; Urdaneta et al.,2000; Kennedy et al., 1992) reported that the ability of does to produce milk wassignificantly affected by parity. The ability to produce milk had a almost steadygrowing trend from the first to fifth lactation and the maximum is attained in thefifth parity (Crepaldi et al. 1999).The least squares analysis of variance for the weaning weight of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats (Table 15) revealed that the weaning weight wassignificantly (P<0.01) influenced by type of birth. Averages of weaning weight ofboth breeds (Figure 11) decreased with the advance in type of birth. The effectof birth type on the weaning weight of goat, and that the weaning weight tendsto decrease with the increasing litter were also documented by Gebrelul et al.(1994), Das et al. (1990), Okello (1993), Husain et al. (1996), Kochapakdee etal. (2000), Alexandre et al. (1999), Das (1993) and Osinowo et al. (1992).Coffey (2002) stated that weaning weights are crucial and indicate the milkingability of the herd. Das and Sendalo (1990) reported that the weaning weightwould reflect mothering ability of does as well as the inherent growth potential.Weaning weight is an excellent indicator of productivity because it reflects bothlitter size, mothering ability and milking ability (Boggs and Merkel, 1993).85Growth during the pre-weaning period is largely determined by maternal milkproduction and competition for it amongst litter mates (Luginbul, 2002).The least squares of variance analysis of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatspresented (Table 15) revealed that the weaning weight was significantly(P<0.01) affected by the sex of the kid. Average of weaning weight of male fromboth breeds (Figure 11) tends to be higher than those of female goats. Sex ofkid influenced the weight at weaning and male kids tend to be heavier thanfemale, was also reported by Okello (1993), Kochapakdee et al. (2000),Alexandre et al. (1999), Das (1993), Zhou et al. (2003), Marai et al. (2002),Lusweti (2000), and Osinowo et al. (1992).Table 15 demonstrates that the weaning weight of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats was significantly (P<0.01) affected by birth weight. Theregression of birth weight on weaning weight was highly significant (P≤0.01).The results indicate that for each 1 gram increase in birth weight there is anincrease of 3.71 and 11.96 gram weaning weight of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats, respectively. Devendra and Burn (1983) and Boggs and Merkel(1993) reported that birth weight of kids is considered to be a very importantcriterion and strongly correlated with the adult body weight.5.2.3 Growth Rate till WeaningThe average growth rate till weaning of the Kacang goat was 63.1 kg (SE =0.77). This value is close to those reported by Astuti et al. (1984) and Sitorus etal. (1985). The average growth rate till weaning of the Peranakan Etawah goatwas 123.1 kg (SE = 0.1). The values reported in his study are higher thanthose reported by by Astuti et al. (1984) and Sutama et al. (1995). The highergrowth rate of Peranakan Etawah goats in this study may be related to themanagement, in which the management of keeping of Peranakan Etawah goats86in the village breeding centre at the Purworejo Regency was better than otherlocations.The least squares analysis of variance for growth rate till weaning of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats (Table 16) revealed that the growth rate tillweaning was significantly (P<0.01) affected by parity. Parity was a significantsource of variation for the growth rate of goat, also obtained by Inyangala et al.(1990), Gebrelul et al. (1994), Ikwuegbu et al. (1995), Osinowo et al. (1992),Das et al. (1990). Averages of growth rate till weaning of both breeds (Figure12) increased with the advance in parity up to the 4th parity and slightlydecreased thereafter. This may be attributed to physiological maturity of olderdoes and their ability to provide enough milk for the kids. Crepaldi et al. (1999)reported that the ability of does to produce milk had on almost steady growingtrend from the first to fifth lactation and the maximum is attained in the fifthparity. Some researchers (Zeng and Escobar, 1995; Haenlein, 2000; Urdanetaet al., 2000; Kennedy et al., 1992) reported that the ability of does to producemilk was significantly affected by parity.The least squares analysis of variance for the growth rate till weaning of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats (Table 16) revealed that the growth rate tillweaning was significantly (P<0.01) affected by type of birth. Averages of growthrate till weaning of both breeds (Figure 13) decreased with the advance in thetype of birth. Single-born kids exhibited a faster growth rate than the twin bornkids, also obtained by Das and Sendalo (1990), Gebrelul et al. (1994), Das(1993), Das et al. (1990, 1993), Okello (1993) Alexandre et al. (1999), Osinowoet al. (1992), Ikwuegbu et al. (1995), and Kochapakdee et al. (2000). Growthpotential would reflect mothering ability of does (Das and Sendalo, 1990), andgrowth during the pre-weaning period is largely determined by maternal milkproduction and competition for it amongst litter mates (Luginbul, 2002; Steve,2001).The analysis of variance for growth rate till weaning of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats (Table 16) also showed that growth rate till weaning wassignificantly (P<0.01) affected by sex of kid.Results of this study (Figure 13)87showed that pre-weaning average daily of male goats tends to be higher thanthose of female goats. The sex of kids had a significant effect on the pre-weaning average daily rate, and male goats were significantly heavier and grewfaster than females, also reported by Boggs and Merkel (1993), Das et al.(1990), Okello (1993), Alexandre et al. (1999), Osinowo et al. (1992),Kochapakdee et al. (2000), Osinowo et al. (1992) and Karua and Banda (1990).Results of this study (Table 16) also demonstrated that the birth weight has asignificant effect (P<0.01) on growth rate till weaning of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats. The regression of birth weight on growth rate till weaning washighly significant (P≤0.01). The results indicate that for each 1 gram increase inbirth weight there is an increase of 22.56 and 11.96 gram growth rate tillweaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively. The majorfactors affecting the pre-weaning growth are genotype and birth weight (Edey,1983; Boggs and Merkel, 1993). Madibela et al. (2002) working on Tswanagoats concluded that kid birth weight was positively correlated with the growthrate.5.2.4 Body Condition ScoreIn the evaluation of live meat goats, body condition scoring can be used as anproduction parameter. Lawrence and Fowler (1997), Aumont et al. (1994) andOtto et al. (1991) reported that body condition scoring can be a very usefulmanagement aid in predicting body composition.Body condition refers tofleshiness an animal (Steele, 1996; Santucii et al., 1991; Luginbuhl, 2002;Thompson and Meyer, 1994; Mangione, 2002; Thomas and Kott, 2002; Thomasand Kott, 2002, Skea, 1990) and is related to all carcass dimensions (Clementset al., 1981). Report of Nicholson and Butterworth’s (1986) investigation onanimals of the same age and sex demonstrated that live weights, carcassweights edible tissue yield high are correlated with condition score.88Results of this study revealed that the overall value of body condition scoring forall parities was in a moderate condition (score 2). These results are similar tothe findings of Sodiq (1997) who investigated the local goats under the villagemanagement systems in the Banyumas region of Indonesia.The analysis of variance for body condition scoring of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats (Table 17) revealed that body condition scoring was significantly(P<0.01) affected by parity. Average of body condition scoring of both breedsfor all birth types (Figure 14) tends to increase with the advance in parity up tothe 4th parity and slightly decrease thereafter. This may be due to increasing thegrowth rate of kid and associated with the physiological maturity of does,particularly in producing milk.The analysis of variance for body condition scoring of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats (Table 17) also revealed that body condition scoring wassignificantly (P<0.01) affected by the type of birth. Averages of body conditionscoring of male and female of both breeds (Figure 15) tends to decrease withthe advance in the type of birth. The higher body condition scoring in a smallerlitter may be due to the low growth rate of kid as a result of the decrease in theshare of each kid in milk production of their mother during the suckling period.The average body condition scoring of male goats in all birth types (Figure 15)was higher than that on female goats. The difference between males andfemales is significant by the Kacang goats. Nicholson and Butterworth (1986)reported that body condition scoring was affected by the sex of animal.The results (Table 17) also demonstrated that the body condition scoring ofKacang and Peranakan Etawah goats was significantly (P<0.01) affected bybirth weight. The regression of birth weight on body condition scoring was highlysignificant (P≤0.01). This study indicates that for each 1 gram increase in birthweight there is an increase of 1.89 and 1.75 body condition scoring of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively. Similar results on the effect of birthweight on body condition scoring was also reported by Nicholson andButterworth (1986), Aumont et al. (1994), Teixeira (1989) and Sanson et al.(1993). Sodiq et al. (1997) found that there was a relationship between body89condition scoring and the carcass weight of local goats in the Banyumas regionof Indonesia. The relationship between body weight and condition score on theRasa Arganesa breed was semilogarithmic (Teixeira, 1989), and therelationship between carcass fat depots and condition score was logarithmic.The relationship between body weight and condition scores was high (0.89) andan analysis indicated that each unit increase in condition scores resulted in anincrease of 5.1 kg in body weight (Sanson et al., 1993). The correlation ofcondition scores with carcass fatness was also reported by Otto et al. (1991).5.2.5 Leg Conformation IndexIn the evaluation of live goats particularly for meat production, leg conformationis an important indicator. Conformation reflects the relationship between theskeleton and the covering of muscle and fat (Alliston, 1983) and the thickness ofmuscle and fat in relation to skeletal size (Butterfield, 1988). Leg conformationindicates both the growability and the relative composition of the animal (Boggsand Merkel, 1993) particularly the unribbed carcass to obtain an assessment ofoverall muscling.The analysis of variance for leg conformation index of Kacang and PeranakanEtawah goats (Table 18) revealed that leg conformation index was significantly(P<0.01) affected by parity. Averages of leg conformation index of both breedsfor all birth types (Figure 16) tend to increase with the advance in parity up tothe 4th parity and slightly decrease thereafter. The increasing leg conformationup to the 4th parity could be related with the increasing growth rate of the kid(Figure 12). This may be attributed to physiological maturity of older does andtheir ability to provide enough milk for the kids. Some researchers (Zeng andEscobar, 1995; Haenlein, 2000; Urdaneta et al., 2000; Kennedy et al., 1992)reported that the ability of the doe to produce milk was significantly affected byparity. The ability to produce milk was almost a steady growing trend from first90to fifth lactation and the maximum is attained in the fifth parity (Crepaldi et al.1999).The analysis of variance for leg conformation index of Peranakan Etawah goats(Table 18) also revealed that leg conformation index was significantly (P<0.01)affected by sex. Averages of leg conformation index of male goats in all birthtypes of both breeds was higher than that on female goats (Figure 17). Theeffect of sex on leg conformation of kid was also obtained by Soedjadi et al.(1989) and Rismaniah et al. (1990). The average lengths of leg of female andmale post weaning goats were 14.29 + 1.84 cm (ranged 12-18 cm) and 14.39 +1.58 cm (ranged 12.5-18 cm), respectively. The average circumferences of legof female and male post weaning goats were 24.32 + 1.84 cm (ranged 17-28.5cm) and 25.10 + 1.58 cm (ranged 12.5-18 cm), respectively.The least square analysis of variance for leg conformation index of Kacang andPeranakan Etawah goats (Table 18) also revealed that leg conformation indexwas significantly (P<0.01) affected by the type of birth. Average legconformation index of males and females of both breeds tends to decrease withthe advance in type of birth (Figure 17). The higher leg conformation index insmaller litter was associated with the higher growth rate of kid in smaller litter(Figure 12). This is possibly related to the share of each kid in milk productionof their mother during the suckling period.The analysis of variance (Table 18) revealed that the leg conformation index ofKacang and Peranakan Etawah goats was, as the body scoring, significantly(P<0.01) affected by birth weight. Results of this study demonstrated that foreach 1 gram increase in birth weight there is an increase of 21.36 and 8.47 legconformation index of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively.Results of Purnama and Sodiq (1998) whose studies on local goats inBanyumas found a relationship between leg conformation and carcass weight.Rismaniah et al. (1990) found that there were relation between leg conformationand body weight on local goats in the Tegal Subdistrict of Indonesia.916SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONSSmall ruminants like sheep and goats are important for a larger part of theIndonesia. Nearly ninety nine percent of goats in Indonesia are found in thehands of smallholders. Goats play an important role as an income generatingactivity, particularly for smallholders, whilst being a source of animal protein tosupport the national programme.The number of goats raised per farm isrelatively small with the cut and carry, and grazing system. Goats are keptprimarily for meat production, so production traits of interest are the number ofyoung weaned per breeding female per year and their growth rate.The majority of goats in Indonesia is concentrated on the Island of Java with themajor breeds being the Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goat. Kacang is a localbreed of goat found in Indonesia. This population is adapted to a wide range ofmanagement conditions and feeding regimes in the region. Peranakan Etawahgoats are descended originally from crossings between the Kacang with Etawah(Jamnapari) goats. The Indonesian breeds of goats are small and relativelyslow growing. There has been some interest in introduction of other genotypes,for example, the Etawah goat has already been widely crossed with the Kacanggoat.This thesis aims at describing the level of production and reproduction ofKacang and Peranakan Etawah goats under the village production system, andalso describing factors affecting them. Litter size, litter weight at birth, litterweight at weaning, survival rate till weaning, kidding interval, and doeproductivity index were studied on the doe reproductive traits. The productiontraits of the kids studied were: birth weight, growth rate till weaning, weaningweight, body condition score, and leg conformation. Factors of parity, type ofbirth, sex, birth weight, litter weight at birth and at weaning were examined inthis study.92This study was carried out by on-farm research commencing in December 1999and finishing in July 2002, located in the Grobogan and Purworejo region,Central Java, Indonesia.On-farm research conducted under smallholders(private farms) involved 480 does and 2000 kids of Peranakan Etawah andKacang goats. The herds were monitored (visited) regularly. Each herd wasvisited at the commencement of the study and does were identified with aneckband tag. Herd owners and village staff (or head of cooperation andextension worker) were issued with scales to help record birth and doe weight.Breeding record cards were also prepared, so that they could help to collectdata related to date of mating, kidding date and sex of kids.The data were analysed statistically according to the analysis of varianceprocedure using the General Linear Model (GLM). Duncan’s multiple range andTukey’s honestly significant difference test were used to identify significantdifferences. SigmaPlot 4.0 was used to produce the exact graphs. The linearregression on litter weight at birth was calculated to access the litter weight atweaning. The linear regression on litter weight at weaning was calculated topredict the survival rate till weaning, kidding interval and doe productivity. Thelinear regression on birth weight of kid was also calculated to predict some traitsof kid production: weaning weight, growth rate till weaning, condition scoringand leg conformation.Results obtained could be summarized as follows:1.1Type of BirthType of birth (litter size) of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goat wassignificantly affected by parity. Average litter sizes of both breedsgradually tend to increase with the advance in parity up to the 4th parityand then slightly decreased in the 5th parity. Litter size of Kacang goattends to be higher than those of Peranakan Etawah goat.931.2Litter Weight at BirthLitter weight at birth of of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goat wassignificantly affected by parity and type of birth. Averages of litter weightat birth of both breeds increased with the advance in parity up to the 4thparity and slightly decreased thereafter. Average litter weight at birth ofboth breeds increased progressively with the advance in type of birth.Litter weight at birth of Kacang goat tends to be lighter than those ofPeranakan Etawah goat.1.3Litter Weight at WeaningLitter weight at weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goat wassignificantly affected by parity, type of birth and litter weight at birth.Averages of litter weight at weaning of both breeds tend to increase withthe advance in parity up to the 4th parity and slightly decrease thereafter.Averages of litter weight at weaning of both breeds increasedprogressively with the advance in type of birth. The regression of litterweight at birth on litter weight at weaning was highly significant, and witheach 1 gram increase in litter weight at birth there is an increase of 4.48and 3.37 gram litter weight at weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats, respectively. Litter weight at weaning of Kacang goat tends to belighter than those of Peranakan Etawah goat.1.4Survival Rate till WeaningSurvival rate till weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats wassignificantly affected by type of birth, parity and litter weight at weaning.Averages survival rate till weaning both breeds decreased progressivelywith the advance in the type of birth. Average of survival rate till weaningof both breeds increased with the advance in parity up to the 4th parityand then slightly decreased. The regression of survival rate till weaningon litter weight at weaning was highly significant. The result indicatedthat for each 1 gram increase in litter weight at weaning there is anincrease of 0.39 and 0.64 percent survival rate till weaning of Kacang94and Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively. Survival rate till weaning ofKacang goat tends to be higher than those of Peranakan Etawah goat.1.5Kidding IntervalKidding interval of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats wassignificantly affected by type of parity and type of birth. The kiddinginterval of both breeds extended with the advance in parity up to the 4thparity and slightly shortened thereafter. Averages of kidding interval ofboth breeds shortened progressively with the advance in type of birth.The effect of litter weight at weaning was insignificantly on kiddinginterval of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goat.Kidding interval ofKacang goat tends to be shorter than those of Peranakan Etawah goat.1.6Doe Productivity indexDoe productivity index (kg/doe/year) of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahwas significantly affected by the type of birth, parity and litter weight atweaning. Averages of doe productivity index of both breeds increasedprogressively with the advance in type of birth. Averages of doeproductivity index of both breeds increased with the advance in parity upto the 4th parity and slightly decreased thereafter. The regression of litterweight at weaning on doe productivity index was highly significant. Theresult indicated that for each 1 kg increase in litter weight at weaningthere is an increase of 1.806 and 1.442 kg/doe/year doe productivityindex of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively. Doeproductivity index of Kacang goat tends to be lower than those ofPeranakan Etawah goat.952 Production Traits of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah Kids2.1 Birth WeightBirth weight of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats was significantlyaffected by parity, type of birth and sex of kid. Averages of birth weight ofboth breeds increased with the advance in parity up to the 4th parity andslightly decreased thereafter, and male goats tend to be higher thanthose of females. Average of birth weight of both breeds tend todecrease with the advance in the type of birth. Birth weight of Kacanggoat tends to be lower than those of Peranakan Etawah goat.2.2Weaning WeightWeaning weight of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats wassignificantlyaffected by parity, type of birth, sex and birth weight.Averages of weaning weight of both breeds increased with the advancein parity up to the 4th parity and slightly decreased thereafter. Averagesof weaning weight of both breeds decreased with the advance in type ofbirth, and weaning weight of males tends to be higher than those offemales. The regression of birth weight on weaning weight was highlysignificant. The results indicate that for each 1 gram increase in birthweight there is an increase of 3.71 and 11.96 gram weaning weight ofKacang and Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively. Weaning weight ofKacang goat tends to be lower than those of Peranakan Etawah goat.2.3Growth Rate till WeaningGrowth rate till weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats wassignificantly affected by parity, type of birth, sex and birth weight.Averages of growth rate till weaning of both breeds increased with theadvance in parity up to the 4th parity and slightly decreased thereafter.Averages of growth rate till weaning of both breeds decreased with the96advance in the type of birth, and male goats tends to be higher thanthose of females.The regression of birth weight on growth rate tillweaning was highly significant (P≤0.01). The results indicate that foreach 1 gram increase in birth weight there is an increase of 22.56 and11.96 gram growth rate till weaning of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats, respectively. Growth rate till weaning of Kacang goat tends to beslower than those of Peranakan Etawah goat.2.4Body Condition ScoreBody condition scoring of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats wassignificantly affected by parity, type of birth, sex and birth weight.Average of body condition scoring of both breeds tends to increase withthe advance in parity up to the 4th parity and to slightly decreasethereafter. Averages of body condition scoring of both breeds tends todecrease with the advance in type of birth, and male goats was higherthan that of female. The regression of birth weight on body conditionscoring was highly significant. Results indicate that for each 1 gramincrease in birth weight there is an increase of 1.89 and 1.75 bodycondition scoring of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively.Body condition scoring of the Kacang goat tends to be higher than thoseof the Peranakan Etawah goat.2.5Leg Conformation IndexLeg conformation index of Kacang and Peranakan Etawah goatsrevealed that leg conformation index was significantly affected by parity,type of birth, sex and birth weight. Averages of leg conformation index ofboth breeds tend to increase with the advance in parity up to the 4thparity and slightly decrease thereafter. Average leg conformation index ofmales and females of both breeds tend to decrease with the advance intype of birth, and male goats was higher than that of female goats. Theregression of birth weight on body condition scoring was highlysignificant. Results indicated that for each 1 gram increase in birth weight97there is an increase of 21.36 and 8.47 leg conformation index of Kacangand Peranakan Etawah goats, respectively. Leg conformation index ofthe Kacang goat tends to be higher than those of the Peranakan Etawahgoat.The study has demonstrated that the tested factors (parity, type of birth, sex,birth weight, litter weight at birth and at weaning) exerted significant influenceson the level of production and reproduction of Kacang and Peranakan Etawahgoats under the village production system. The results call for managementefforts in order to improve the production and reproduction level :1. Curb mortality especially in a higher litter2. Increase litter size at birth and at weaning3. To reduce intervals between kiddings, especially in Peranakan Etawah goat4. Increase the body weight (at birth and at weaning) especially for the Kacanggoat.Improvement genetically by selection based on criteria of the weaning weight(for the Kacang goat) and the litter size (for the Peranakan Etawah goat) arealso recommended.987RINGKASAN DAN KESIMPULANTernak ruminansia kecil seperti domba dan kambing berperanan sangat pentingpada pada sebagain besar negara Indonesia. Mendekati 99 persen ternakkambing di Indonesia berada di tangan petani kecil. Peranan ternak kambingsebagai sumber pendapatan khususnya bagi petenai kecil adalah sangat nyata,disamping itu juga berperanan sebagai salah satu sumber protein hewani untukmendukung program Nasional.Jumlah kepemilikan ternak kambing padasetiap peternak adalah relatip kecil dengan sistem pemeliharaan padaumumnya dikandangkan dan juga digembalakan. Tujuan utama pemeliharaanternak kambing pada umumnya adalah untuk produksi daging, sehinggakarakteristik produksi yang diprioritaskan adalah produksi cempe setiap indukdalam setiap tahun serta karakteristik pertumbuhannya.Di Indonesia, mayoritas ternak kambing terkonsentrasi di Pulau Jawa danbangsa kambing yang ditemukan adalah bangsa Kambing Kacang danPeranakan Etawah.Kambing Kacang adalah jenis kambing lokal danmerupakan bangsa kambing asli yang ditemukan di Indonesia. Populasi dariKambing Kacang telah beradaptasi dengan kindisi lingkungan pemeliharaandan pakan setempat. Kambing Peranakan Etawah merupakan kambing hasilpersilangan antara Kambing Kacang dengan Kambing Etawah (Jamnapari).Bangsa kambing Indonsia berakarakteristik ukuran tubuhnya relatip kecil danlaju pertumbuhannya relatip lambat.Alasan itulah yang menjadikanketertarikan untuk mengintroduksi genotipe kambing yang lain seperti telahdilakukan persilangan natara Kambing Etawah dengan Kambing Kacang.Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui tingkat produksi danreproduksi dari Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah pada sistempemeliharaan di pedesaan dan juga untuk mengetahui beberapa faktor yangmempengaruhi tingkat produksi dan reproduksinya.Karakteristik reproduksiyang diamati pada induk kambing adalah jumlah anak sekelahiran, total bobotcempe saat lahir, total bobot cempe saat disapih, kemampuan hidup cempe99hingga di sapih, jarak beranak dan indeks produktivitas induk.Adapunkarakteristik produksi yang diamati pada cempe adalah bobot lahir, bobot sapih,laju pertubuhan, nilai kondisi tubuh dan konfoormasi paha. Beberapa faktoryang diidentifikasi berpengaruh terhadap produksi dan reproduksi adalahtingkat beranak, tipe kelahiran, jenis kelamin, bobot lahir dan bobot sapih.Untuk menjawab tujuan penelitian ini maka telah dilakukan penelitian lapangandengan sasaran ternak Kambing Kacang dan Kambing Peranakan Etawahyang dipelihara pada sistem pedesaan.Untuk ternak Kambing Kacangdilakukan di Kecamatan Gundi Kabupaten Grobogan, sedangkan untuk ternakKambing Peranakan Etawah dilakukan di kecamatan Kaligesing KabupatenPurworejo Propinsi Jawa-Tengah, Indonesia.Penelitian lapangan padapeternakan rakyat ini melibatkan sekitar 480 ekor induk kambing dan 2000 ekorcempe. Pada awal tahap penelitian dilakukan identifikasi terhadap populasiternak dalam kanadang dan individu induk.Pengamatan dilakukan secarareguler dan berkesinambungan. Pada tahap awal dicatat bebrapa data berikutini (1) Rincian data populasi termasuk jumlah danbangsa ternak serta tipepemeliharaan, (2) Rincian data individu induk seperti bangsa, umur dan tingkatkelahiranDisediakan kartu catatan produksi untuk setiap induk dan beberapaalat penelitian seperti timbangan dan tali untuk menimbang.Untukmemperlancar proses pengumpulan data pada penelitian ini, dilibatkan pulapara tokoh masyarakat dan kelompok petani ternak setempat.Seluruh data yang terkumpul dianalisis dengan Sidik Ragam menggunakanprosedur General Linear Model (GLM) dari perangkat lunak Statistical Productand Service Solution (SPSS).Uji lanjut dilakukan dengan menggunakanDuncan’s multiple range dan Tukey’s honestly.digunakan program Sigma Plot versi 4.0.Untuk memproduksi grafikAnalisis Regresi Linier jugaditerapkan untuk memprediski bobot sapih dengan parameter bobot lahir.Analisis Regresi Linear juga diterapkan untuk memprediksi daya hidup cempehingga umur disapih, jarak beranak dan indeks produktivitas induk denganmenggunakan prediktor total bobot cempe saat disapih. Analisis serupa jugadilakukan untuk memprediksi bobot sapih, laju pertumbuhan cempe, kondisi100tubuh dan konformasi paha yang diprediksi dengan menggunakan prediktorbobot lahir cempe.Dari hasil penelitian ini dapat disimpulkan beberapa hal sebagai berikut:1 Karakteristik produksi Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah1.1 Tipe KelahiranTipe kelahiran atau jumlah anak sekelahiran pada Kambing Kacang danPeranakan Etawah nyata dipengaruhi oleh paritas induk. Rataan jumlahanak sekelahiran untuk kedua bangsa kambing tersebut akan meningkatsesuai dengan tingkat paritas hingga paritas ke-4 dan kemudian akanmenurun mulai paritas ke-5.Kambing Kacang cenderung memilikijumlah anak sekelahiran relatip lebih banyak dibandingkan denganKambing Peranakan Etawah.1.2Total Bobot Cempe Saat LahirTotal bobot cempe saat lahir pada Kambing Kacang dan PeranakanEtawah nyata dipengaruhi oleh paritas induk dan tipe kelahiran. Rataantotal bobot cempe saat lahir untuk kedua bangsa kambing tersebut akanmeningkat sesuai dengan tingkat paritas hingga paritas ke-4 dankemudian akan menurun mulai paritas ke-5. Total bobot cempe saat lahiruntuk kedua bangsa kambing tersebut juga akan meningkat seiringdengan meningkatnya jumlah anak sekelahiran.Kambing Kacangcenderung memiliki total bobot cempe saat lahir relatip lebih ringandibandingkan dengan Kambing Peranakan Etawah.1.3Total Bobot Cempe Saat SapihTotal bobot cempe sapih pada Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawahnyata dipengaruhi oleh paritas induk, tipe kelahiran dan total bobotcempe lahir.Rataan total bobot cempe sapih untuk kedua bangsakambing tersebut akan meningkat sesuai dengan tingkat paritas hinggaparitas ke-4 dan kemudian akan menurun mulai paritas ke-5. Total bobotcempe saat sapih untuk kedua bangsa kambing tersebut juga akan101meningkat seiring dengan meningkatnya jumlah anak sekelahiran.Setiap peningkatan 1 gram total bobot cempe saat lahir akan diikuti olehpeningkatan total bobot cempe saat sapih masing-masing sebesar 4.48dan 3.37 gram untuk Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah.Kambing Kacang cenderung memiliki total bobot cempe saat sapihrelatip lebih ringan dibandingkan dengan Kambing Peranakan Etawah.1.4Daya Hidup Cempe sampai SapihDaya hidup cempe sampai sapih pada Kambing Kacang dan PeranakanEtawah nyata dipengaruhi oleh paritas induk, tipe kelahiran dan totalbobot cempe saat sapih. Rataan daya hidup cempe sampai sapih untukkedua bangsa kambing tersebut akan meningkat sesuai dengan tingkatparitas hingga paritas ke-4 dan kemudian akan menurun mulai paritaske-5. Daya hidup cempe sampai sapih untuk kedua bangsa kambingtersebut juga akan meningkat seiring dengan meningkatnya jumlah anaksekelahiran. Setiap peningkatan 1 gram total bobot cempe saat sapihakan diikuti oleh peningkatan daya hidup cempe sampai sapih masing-masing sebesar 0.39 dan 0.64 persen untuk Kambing Kacang danPeranakan Etawah. Kambing Kacang cenderung memiliki daya hidupcempe sampai sapih relatip lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan KambingPeranakan Etawah.1.5Jarak BeranakJarak beranak pada Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah nyatadipengaruhi oleh paritas induk and tipe kelahiran. Jarak beranak untukkedua bangsa kambing tersebut akan semakin pendek seiring tingkatparitas hingga paritas ke-4 dan kemudian akan memanjang mulai paritaske-5. Jarak beranak untuk kedua bangsa kambing tersebut juga akanmemendek seiring dengan meningkatnya jumlah anak sekelahiran. Jarakberanak pada Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah nyata tidakdipengaruhi oleh total bobot cempe saat sapih.Kambing Kacangcenderung memiliki jarak beranak relatip lebih pendek dibandingkandengan Kambing Peranakan Etawah.1021.7Indeks Produktivitas IndukIndeks produktivitas induk (kg/induk/tahun) pada Kambing Kacang danPeranakan Etawah nyata dipengaruhi oleh paritas induk, tipe kelahirandan total bobot cempe saat sapih. Indeks produktivitas induk untukkedua bangsa kambing tersebut akan meningkat sesuai dengan tingkatparitas hingga paritas ke-4 dan kemudian akan menurun mulai paritaske-5. Indeks produktivitas induk untuk kedua bangsa kambing tersebutjuga akan meningkat seiring dengan meningkatnya jumlah anaksekelahiran. Setiap peningkatan 1 kg total bobot cempe saat sapih akandiikuti oleh peningkatan indeks produktivitas induk masing-masingsebesar 1.806 dan 1.442 kg/induk/tahun untuk Kambing Kacang danPeranakan Etawah.Kambing Kacang cenderung memiliki indeksproduktivitas induk relatip lebih rendah dibandingkan dengan KambingPeranakan Etawah.2 Karakteristik produksi Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah2.1 Bobot LahirBobot lahir pada Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah nyatadipengaruhi oleh paritas induk, tipe dan jenis kelamin. Bobot lahir untukkedua bangsa kambing tersebut akan meningkat sesuai dengan paritashingga paritas ke-4 dan kemudian akan menurun mulai paritas ke-5.Bobot lahir cempe untuk kedua bangsa kambing tersebut juga akanmenurun seiring dengan meningkatnya jumlah anak sekelahiran.Kambing Kacang cenderung memiliki bobot lahir relatip lebih rendahdibandingkan dengan Kambing Peranakan Etawah.2.2Bobot SapihBobot sapih pada Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah nyatadipengaruhi oleh paritas induk, tipe, jenis kelamin dan bobot lahir. Bobotsapih untuk kedua bangsa kambing tersebut akan meningkat sesuaidengan paritas hingga paritas ke-4 dan kemudian akan menurun mulaiparitas ke-5. Bobot sapih untuk kedua bangsa kambing tersebut juga103akan menurun seiring dengan meningkatnya jumlah anak sekelahiran.Setiap peningkatan 1 gram bobot lahir cempe akan diikuti olehpeningkatan bobot sapih cempe masing-masing sebesar 3.71 dan 11.96gram untuk Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah. Kambing Kacangcenderung memiliki bobot sapih relatip lebih rendah dibandingkandengan Kambing Peranakan Etawah.2.3Laju Pertumbuhan Cempe sampai Umur SapihLaju pertumbuhan sampai umur sapih pada Kambing Kacang danPeranakan Etawah nyata dipengaruhi oleh paritas induk, tipe, jeniskelamin dan bobot lahir. Laju pertumbuhan sampai umur sapih untukkedua bangsa kambing tersebut akan meningkat sesuai dengan paritashingga paritas ke-4 dan kemudian akan menurun mulai paritas ke-5. Lajupertumbuhan sampai umur sapih untuk kedua bangsa kambing tersebutjuga akan menurun seiring dengan meningkatnya jumlah anaksekelahiran. Setiap peningkatan 1 gram bobot lahir cempe akan diikutioleh peningkatan laju pertumbuhan cempe sampai umur sapih masing-masing sebesar 22.56 dan 11.96 gram untuk Kambing Kacang danPeranakan Etawah.Kambing Kacang cenderung memiliki lajupertumbuhan sampai umur sapih relatip lebih rendah dibandingkandengan Kambing Peranakan Etawah.2.4Nilai Kondisi TubuhNilai kondisi tubuh pada Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah nyatadipengaruhi oleh paritas induk, tipe, jenis kelamin dan bobot lahir. Nilaikondisi tubuh untuk kedua bangsa kambing tersebut akan meningkatsesuai dengan paritas hingga paritas ke-4 dan kemudian akan menurunmulai paritas ke-5. Nilai kondisi tubuh untuk kedua bangsa kambingtersebut juga akan menurun seiring dengan meningkatnya jumlah anaksekelahiran. Setiap peningkatan 1 gram bobot lahir cempe akan diikutioleh peningkatan nilai kondisi tubuh masing-masing sebesar 1.89 dan1.75 untuk Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah. Nilai kondisi tubuhKambing Kacang relatip lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan KambingPeranakan Etawah.1042.5Indeks Konformasi PahaIndeks konformasi paha Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah nyatadipengaruhi oleh paritas induk, tipe, jenis kelamin dan bobot lahir. Indekskonformasi paha untuk kedua bangsa kambing tersebut akan meningkatsesuai dengan paritas hingga paritas ke-4 dan kemudian akan menurunmulai paritas ke-5. Indeks konformasi paha untuk kedua bangsa kambingtersebut juga akan menurun seiring dengan meningkatnya jumlah anaksekelahiran. Setiap peningkatan 1 gram bobot lahir cempe akan diikutioleh peningkatan indeks konformasi paha masing-masing sebesar 21.36dan 8.47 1.89 untuk Kambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah. Indekskonformasi paha pada Kambing Kacang relatip lebih tinggi dibandingkanpada Kambing Peranakan Etawah.Dari dari kajian pada penelitian ini telah dibuktikan dan diidentifikasi berapafaktor secara nyata berpengaruh terhadap tingkat produksi dan reproduksiKambing Kacang dan Peranakan Etawah pada sistem pemeliharaan dipedesaan. Adapun faktor tersebut adalah peringkat kelahiran, tipe kelahiran,jenis kelmain, bobot lahir cempe, bobot sapih cempe, total bobot cempe saatlahir dan saat disapih. Dari hasil temuan ini, ada beberapa rekomendasi untukmeningkatkan tingkat produksi dan reproduksi antara lain:(1) Meminimalkan angka kematian cempe sebelum sapih terutama pada tipejumlah anak sekelahiran yang tinggi(2) Meningkatkan jumlah anak sekelahiran pada saat dan disapih(3) Memperpendek jarak beranak terutama pada Kambing Peranakan Etawah(4) Meningkatkan bobot badan pada saat lahir dan disapih terutama untukKambing Kacang.Disarankan pula usaha perbaikan melalui peningkatan mutu genetik denganmenerapkan sistem seleksi dengan menggunakan kriteria seleksi bobot sapihcempe (untuk Kambing Kacang) dan kriteria seleksi jumlah anak sekelahiran(untuk Kambing Peranakan Etawah).105REFERENCESAdiati, U., D. Yulistiani, R.S.G. Sianturi, Hastono dan I.G.M. 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Box 110, Purwokerto, Jawa-Tengah, Indonesia Phone/Fax : 0062-281-638792Home Address : Desa Pasir Wetan RT. 04 RW. 02 No. 174, Kecamatan Karanglewas, Kabupaten Banyumas Propinsi Jawa-Tengah, Indonesia Phone: 0062-281-623882 Email: sodiq_akhmad@hotmail.com akhmad_sodiq@yahoo.comEducation:1975 - 19811981 - 19841984 - 19871987 - 19921995 - 19971999 - present::::Elementary SchoolJunior High SchoolSenior High SchoolBachelor of Agricultural Science, The Faculty ofAnimal Production, University of Jenderal Soedirman,Purwokerto, Indonesia: Master of Agricultural Science, The Faculty ofAgriculture, Georg-August-Universität,Göttingen, Germany.: Doctoral fellow, Department of International AnimalHusbandry, Faculty of Ecological Agricultural SciencesUniversity of Kassel, GermanyOccupation:Since 1994: Lecturer, Department of Animal Production,University of Jenderal Soedirman,Purwokerto, Indonesia

Digestive System of the Horse and Feeding Management

2011-12-14T04:36:00.001-08:00

Agriculture and Natural ResourcesFSA3038Steven M. JonesAssociate Professor Animal ScienceAnimals have different types ofdigestive systems based on whereand how they digest components.Nonruminant systems are characterized by enzymatic digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats in theforegut, with limited fiber digestion inthe hindgut. Digestive systems ofman, pigs and dogs are examples ofthis type of digestion. Ruminants,such as cows, sheep and deer, havemore complex digestive systems thatallow fiber digestion in the rumen,enzymatic digestion in the foregut andrelatively minimal digestion of fiber inthe hindgut. The horse’s digestivesystem is somewhat intermediatebetween other nonruminants andruminants in that high rates of enzymatic digestion occur in the foregut(mouth to ileum) plus high rates offermentive microbial digestion occurin the hindgut (cecum to rectum). Thehorse is classified as a nonruminantherbivore – a roughage eater.Figure 1 shows the horse’s digestivetract with approximate lengths andcapacities of various compartments ofthe tract. Accessory organs that aid indigestion (not shown) include the teeth,salivary glands, liver and pancreas.This diagram has been stretched outfor demonstration purposes and thus isnot anatomically correct. Figure 2 is acloseup of the major components of thedigestive tract of the horse.Figure 2.Components of Horse Digestive TractThe foregut includes the mouth,esophagus, stomach and smallintestine. Digestion begins in themouth where feeds are chewed andwetted with saliva. The chewingprocess cracks the outer shell ofgrains, reduces the particle size offeeds and increases the surface areaof food particles.Arkansas IsOur CampusVisit our web site at:http://www.uaex.eduFigure 1.Digestive Tract of the HorseUniversity of Arkansas, United States Department of Agriculture, and County Governments CooperatingThe horse’s stomach is small, relative to the totaltract, and cannot accommodate large quantities offood at any one time, resulting in eating several timesper day due to limited one-time capacity. Limitedenzymatic digestion and some fermentive digestionfrom a small microbial population occurs in thestomach. Food remains in the stomach only about15 minutes before it starts to pass into the smallintestine. This limited capacity and any excess gasproducts in the stomach can cause the rupture of thestomach, other digestive upsets and death.The small intestine is the site for a major portionof nutrient absorption. Here soluble carbohydratesare digested to simple sugars and absorbed for use asenergy. Efficiency of carbohydrate digestion in thesmall intestine appears to be important to increasethe energy available to the horse and decrease thepotential for colic or founder caused by excessivecarbohydrates reaching the hindgut. The small intestine appears to be the primary site for fat digestionand absorption. Diets containing 10 to 15 percent fatcan be tolerated and used for energy. About 50 to70 percent of the protein in grain-based diets isdigested to amino acids and absorbed from the smallintestine, but less than one-third of hay protein isabsorbed from the upper tract. The fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K are also absorbed in the smallintestine along with B-vitamins, calcium and somephosphorus. Passage of feeds through the smallintestine takes approximately 30 to 90 minutes.The horse’s hindgut includes the cecum, largecolon, small colon and rectum. The cecum hangsagainst the right side of the abdominal cavity at thejuncture of the horse’s body trunk and hind leg.During or immediately after a horse eats, gut sounds,which are mixing activities of the cecum, can beheard normally by placing an ear against the abdominal wall in the area of the cecum. Veterinarians routinely listen for these gut sounds when diagnosingdigestive disturbances. Absence of gut sounds mayindicate abnormal cecal activity.The horse’s hindgut contains an active populationof bacteria and protozoa similar to that of the rumenin ruminants. Microbes break down fibrous feeds intoshort-chained volatile fatty acids. This microbialaction allows the horse to efficiently utilize forages,either green or cured. Volatile fatty acids are anenergy source for the horse, and the amount andproportion produced can be altered by composition ofthe diet. Starch that reaches the hindgut is fermentedto volatile fatty acids plus lactic acid. Again, digestivedisorders can occur when excessive amounts ofsoluble carbohydrate reach the hindgut, causing anexcess of lactic acid to be produced. Therefore, maximizing starch digestion in the foregut is of the utmostimportance to horsemen.Microbes synthesize amino acids in the largeintestine, but essential amino acids are not absorbedin any appreciable quantity from the hindgut. Thismeans that, unlike the ruminant, the horse cannoteat low-quality protein feeds and then convert thisprotein into higher-quality protein for absorption anduse in the body. Considerable amounts of B-vitaminsare synthesized by the microbes in the hindgut andare absorbed. It appears that thiamine is notabsorbed in sufficient quantities to meet the requirements of hard-working horses and, therefore, shouldbe added to the rations of those horses classed ashard-working (e.g., jumping, roping, enduranceriding, racing). Rate of passage through the cecumand large intestine is 36 to 72 hours.Many factors can influence the digestibility ofnutrients in the complex digestive tract of the horse.These include type of feedstuff, level of maturity offorage, method of processing feedstuffs, quantity fed,frequency of feeding, rate of passage and age andindividual differences among horses.Feeding Management GuidelinesHorses require different amounts of nutrients intheir daily diets, depending upon their nutritionalclass or status in life. Table 1 lists the nutritionalrequirements of horses as determined by the NationalResearch Council. For this discussion, the classes aremature idle, working, growing and stage of reproduction. Dividing horses into classes relative to nutrient requirements is the first step in designing aworkable feeding management program. Thisapproach helps a horse owner meet each horse’snutrient requirements in the most manageable andeconomical fashion. The following suggestions shouldhelp in designing your feeding management program.1. Feed horses according to body weight.Table 2 shows recommended daily feed intakes byhorses as a percent of body weight. The most accuratemethod of determining body weight is to weigh thehorse on a scale. Where weighing is impractical,weight tapes or body measurement formulas can beused. Probably the most commonly used technique fordetermining body weight is the heart girth tape,which is available from feed dealers, veterinariansand livestock supply companies. Another method forestimating a horse’s body weight is the body weightequation. One equation is:W = HG2 × BL330where W = weight in pounds, HG = heart girth ininches and BL = body length in inches (point ofshoulder to point of hip).Table 1. Nutrient Concentrations in Total Diets for Horses and Ponies (90% dry matter basis)DigestibleEnergya(Mcal/lb)Mature HorsesMaintenanceStallionsPregnant Mares9 months10 months11 monthsLactating MaresFoaling to 3 months3 months to weaningWorking HorsesLight workbModerate workcIntense workdGrowing HorsesWeanling, 4 monthsWeanling, 6 monthsModerate growthRapid growthYearling, 12 monthsModerate growthRapid growthLong yearling, 18 mos.Not in trainingIn trainingTwo year old, 24 mos.Not in trainingIn trainingDietProportionsConc.Hay(%)(%)CrudeProtein Lysine(%)(%)Cal-cium(%)Vitamin APhos- Magne- Potas-phorus siumsium(IU/kg) (IU/lb)(%)(%)(%)0.80 0 100 7.2 0.25 0.21 0.15 0.08 0.27 1650 7501.00 30 70 8.6 0.30 0.26 0.19 0.10 0.33 2370 10800.90 20 80 8.9 0.31 0.39 0.29 0.10 0.32 3330 15100.90 20 80 9.0 0.32 0.39 0.30 0.10 0.33 3280 14901.00 30 70 9.5 0.33 0.41 0.31 0.10 0.35 3280 14901.10 50 50 12.0 0.41 0.47 0.30 0.09 0.38 2480 11301.05 35 65 10.0 0.34 0.33 0.20 0.08 0.30 2720 12401.05 35 65 8.8 0.32 0.27 0.19 0.10 0.34 2420 11001.10 50 50 9.4 0.35 0.28 0.22 0.22 0.36 2140 9701.20 65 35 10.3 0.36 0.31 0.23 0.12 0.39 1760 8001.25 70 30 13.1 0.54 0.62 0.34 0.07 0.27 1420 6501.25 70 30 13.0 0.55 0.50 0.28 0.07 0.27 1680 7601.25 70 30 13.1 0.55 0.55 0.30 0.07 0.27 1470 6701.15 60 40 11.3 0.48 0.39 0.21 0.07 0.27 1950 8901.15 60 40 11.3 0.48 0.40 0.22 0.07 0.27 1730 7901.05 45 55 10.1 0.43 0.31 0.17 0.07 0.27 2050 9301.10 50 50 10.8 0.45 0.32 0.18 0.08 0.27 1620 7401.00 35 65 9.4 0.38 0.28 0.15 0.08 0.27 2380 10801.10 50 50 10.1 0.41 0.31 0.17 0.09 0.29 1840 840aValues assume a concentrate feed containing 3.3 Mcal/kg and hay containing 2.00 Mcal/kg of dry matter.bExamples are horses used in Western and English pleasure, bridle path hack, equitation, etc.cExamples are horses used in ranch work, roping, cutting, barrel racing, jumping, etc.dExamplesare race training, polo, etc.Table 2. Recommended Daily Feed Intakes asPercent of Body Weights*ClassMature HorsesMaintenanceWorkingLightMediumIntenseLate GestationLactating MaresYoung HorsesYearling foal(12 months)Long yearling(18 months)2-year-old(24 months)Forage Concentrate Total1.5-2.0 0-0.5 1.5-2.01.0-2.0 0.5-1.0 1.5-2.51.0-2.0 0.75-1.5 1.75-2.50.75-1.5 1.0-2.0 2.0-3.01.0-1.5 0.5-1.0 1.5-2.01.0-2.0 1.0-2.0 2.0-3.01.0-1.5 1.0-2.0 2.0-3.01.0-1.5 1.0-1.5 1.0-1.5 1.75-2.5Feed adjustments should be made according tocondition scores so they can be fed to optimal condition and subsequently achieve maximum reproductiveand performance efficiency. Table 3 is a conditionscorecard. The ideal condition score for most horses is5 to 7.2.0-2.51.0-1.5 2. Feed horses according to condition scores.*Air dry feed, 90% dry matterSource: NRC, 19893. Feed adequate long-stemmed forage.As a nonruminant herbivore, the horse innatelyhas a need to forage or chew long roughage. A horserequires 1 percent of its body weight daily of long-stemmed roughage to allow for normal activity of thedigestive tract.4. Provide feed by weight, not volume.Standard volumes of feedstuffs do not weigh thesame due to their density differences. For example, aTable 3. Condition Scorecard*ScoreBack Ribs Neck Shoulder Withers Tailhead (midbarrel) (forerib) poor 1 very prominent very extremely prominent prominent very vertebrae prominent thin prominentvery thin 2 prominent prominent very thin very thin very thin very thin vertebrae thin 3 vertebrae - fat see easily thin thin thin prominent half way up moderately 4 negative see slight moderately moderately moderately some fatthin crease outline thin thin thin moderate 5 level not see; blend into blend smoothly rounded moderate (no crease) easily feel shoulder into body fatmoderately 6 slight not see; little fat little fat little fat moderatefleshy crease feel fatfleshy 7 average barely average average average fleshy crease feel fat fat fat fatfat 8 obvious difficult fat flush fat filled fat crease to feel behind extremely 9 very obvious not feel bulging bulging bulging bulgingfat crease (patchy fat) fat fat fat fat*Adapted from NRC-Nutrient Requirements of Horses.standard 3-pound coffee can containing 32 pounds perbushel oats will weigh 21⁄2 pounds; 38 pounds perbushel oats will weigh 4 pounds; and the same canfilled with corn will weigh 5 pounds. Hays will varyjust as grains and concentrates. Always check feedweight per unit volume, especially when new ordifferent feeds and hays are purchased.5. Never feed concentrates at a level more than0.75 percent of body weight at any one feeding.For example, a 1,000-pound horse should never befed more than 7.5 pounds of concentrate at any onefeeding. If more than 7.5 pounds of concentrate isrequired by an individual horse, split the amountequally and feed two or more times per day. Spacemultiple feedings throughout the day and feed dailyat set feeding times. Horses are creatures of habitand respond positively to a regular schedule.6. Avoid abrupt ration changes.Ration changes become necessary in the normalproduction cycle. Typically, these changes are inamounts, types or forms of feedstuffs. When changinga ration, some changes can be made almost immediately, some require a few days and others will requirea week or longer. For example, changing from onetextured concentrate to another with equal energydensities is only a slight change and can be done in afew days. However, changing horses from a rationhigh in oats to one high in corn represents a significant change in energy and will require a week ormore to safely make the transition. When changinghorses from grass hay to lush pasture, turn horsesout for only a few hours for two to three days, thenhalf a day for two to three days and then out to thelush pasture continuously. If this gradual changeoveris not feasible, fill the horses up on dry, bulky grasshay prior to turning them out on lush pasture. A similar management scheme should be followed whenchanging from grass hay to lush legumes.Selecting the Correct FeedFor the majority of horse owners, the best way tofeed horses is to choose the best available forage,either pasture or hay, and then purchase a complete,balanced commercial grain concentrate. Commerciallyprepared feeds are practical for feeding a smallnumber of horses. Hay should be tested to determinethe amount of essential nutrients it can provide.Many of the commercially prepared feeds fromreputable companies are balanced for protein, calciumand phosphorus; contain trace mineralized salt; andare fortified with vitamins. The nutrients provided inthe commercial concentrate may be determined byreading the feed tag, with one exception. That exception is energy. It is not required by law to print theenergy content of a feed on the tag. However, energycontent may be estimated by its relationship topercent crude fiber (Table 4).Owners with a large number of horses may find itmore economical and practical to custom mix a rationand have it delivered in bulk. Those owners choosingto mix rations on the farm should take time tobalance for protein, energy, minerals and vitamins. Ifindividual grains are purchased for mixing, only thehighest quality should be used. Some sample rationsare included (Tables 5-10).The horse is dependent upon its owner to providethe proper nutrients and management system foroptimum health and performance. Knowledge of thehorse’s digestive system and nutrient requirementscombined with a sound feeding management planassures the horse owner that the horses in theircare will be healthy and have the ability to reachmaximum performance level.Table 4. Relationship of Crude Fiber to Expected Digestible Energy in Conventional and Fat-SupplementedGrain MixesIf the feedtag indicatescrude fiber (%) ofThen, the digestible energy But, if the feed also contains 4%-5%(Mcal/lb) of the feed added fat (tag shows 7%-8% fat), then thewill be approximately digestible energy will be approximately1.62 1.721.55 1.651.45 1.551.35 1.451.25 1.351.15 1.2524681012(and 3% to 3.75% fat)Table 5. Example Performance Horse Ration (designed to be fed with good quality grass hay or grazing)Ingredients PercentCracked Corn 45.00Whole Oats 42.50Soybean Meal 7.50Molasses 3.25Calcium Carbonate .75TM Salt 1.0Vitamin A +Vitamin E +Pounds/Ton Calculated Analyses900850150651520++Crude Protein = 12.0%Digestible Energy = 1.39 Mcal/lbCrude Fiber = 6.0%Crude Fat = 3.7%Calcium = .36%Phosphorus = .32%Important: See Table 2 on expected feed consumption, andalways introduce new grain feeds gradually. This ration containsapproximately 6% more energy than straight oats, so smalleramounts of this ration will usually maintain similar body condition.Table 6. Fat-Supplemented Performance Ration for Hard-Working Horses (to be fed with grass hay)IngredientsCracked CornWhole OatsAnimal FatSoybean MealMolassesCalcium CarbonateDicalcium PhosphateBrewer’s YeastTM SaltVitamin AVitamin EPercent40.0037.505.0012.252.00.75.251.251.0++Pounds/Ton Calculated Analyses800750100245401552520++Crude Protein = 14.0%Digestible Energy = 1.50 Mcal/lbCrude Fiber = 5.7%Crude Fat = 8.25%Calcium = .42%Phosphorus = .38%Important: See Table 2 on expected feed consumption, andalways introduce new grain feeds gradually. This ration contains8% more energy than the ration shown in Table 5 and 13% moreenergy than straight oats, so smaller amounts of this ration willusually maintain similar body condition.Table 7. Brood Mare Ration to Be Fed With Good-Quality Hay or Grazing During Late Pregnancy and LactationIngredientsOatsCracked CornSoybean MealMolassesGround LimestoneDicalcium PhosphateTM SaltVitamin APercent Pounds/Ton40.00 80040.00 80015.00 3003.00 60.75 15.75 15.50 10+ +Calculated AnalysesCrude Protein = 14.8%Digestible Energy = 1.4 Mcal/lbCrude Fat = 3.3%Calcium = .59%Phosphorus = .50%Table 8. Fat-Added Ration to Be Fed With Good-Quality Hay or Grazing During Late Pregnancy and LactationIngredientsOatsCracked CornAdded FatSoybean MealMolassesGround LimestoneDicalcium PhosphateTM SaltVitamin APercent Pounds/Ton35.00 175.0035.00 175.005.00 25.0020.00 100.002.00 10.00.75 3.751.25 6.251.00 5.00+ +Calculated AnalysesCrude Protein = 16.2%Digestible Energy = 1.51 Mcal/lbCrude Fat = 8%Calcium = .67%Phosphorus = .58%Table 9. Yearling Ration (to be fed with grass hay)IngredientsCracked CornOatsSoybean MealMolassesCalcium CarbonateDicalcium PhosphateTM SaltVitamin APercent Pounds/Ton47.5 95030.0 60015.0 3005.0 100.5 101.5 30.5 10+ +Calculated AnalysesCrude Protein = 14.7%Lysine = .66%Digestible Energy = 1.42 Mcal/lbCalcium = .66%Phosphorus = .63%Table 10. Creep Feed and Weanling Ration (weanling ration designed to be fed with good-quality grass hayor grazing)IngredientsCracked CornOatsSoybean MealMolassesCalcium CarbonateDicalcium PhosphateTM SaltVitamin APercent Pounds/Ton40.0 80032.5 65020.0 4005.0 1001.0 201.0 20.5 10+ +Calculated AnalysesCrude Protein = 16.5%Lysine = .80%Digestible Energy = 1.39 Mcal/lbFat = 3.2%Fiber = 5.5%Calcium = .80%Phosphorus = .50%Printed by University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service Printing Services.STEVEN M. JONES is associate professor with the Department ofAnimal Science, University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture,Little Rock.FSA3038-PD-7-11RVIssued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Acts of May 8 andJune 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture,Director, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Arkansas. TheArkansas Cooperative Extension Service offers its programs to all eligiblepersons regardless of race, color, national origin, religion, gender, age,disability, marital or veteran status, or any other legally protected status,and is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer.

peraturan Tepung TRigu DiIndonesia

2011-12-14T04:35:00.000-08:00

Standar ini menetapkan syarat mutu, pengambilan contoh dan cara uji untuktepung terigu sebagai bahan makanan. Standar ini tidak berlaku untuk:a) tepung terigu yang dibuat dari gandum jenis durum (Triticum durumDesf);b) produk gandum keseluruhan (whole meal) dan semolina (Farina);c) tepung terigu yang ditunjukan untuk penggunaan bir (Brewing adjuct)atau untukd) pembuatan pati dan / atau gluten;e) tepung untuk keperluan non makanan;f) tepung terigu yang telah mengalami perlakuan khusus, selain perlakuanpengeringan,g) pemucatan.Komposisi : meliputi bahan baku utama yaitu Gandum, Bahan baku lainyang harus ditambahkan seperi Vitamin B1(thiamin) dan VitaminB2(riboflavin), serta bahan tambahan pangan (BTP) yang diizinkan untukproduk tepung teriguSyarat mutu Syarat mutu tepung terigu mencakup 17 aspek termasukKeadaan,Benda asing ,Kehalusan, Kadar air, dsb.Pengambilan contoh dan pengujianPengambilan contoh dilakukansecara acak, menggunakan alat yang bersih dan kering ,dilaksanakan ditempat yang terlindung dari hal yang dapat mempengaruhi contoh.Contoh dinyatakan lulus uji apabila memenuhi persyaratan mutu yangditentukan untuk 17 aspek yang diujiPengemasan produk tepung terigu dikemas dalam wadah yang tertutuprapat, tidak dipengaruhi atau mempengaruhi isi, aman selama penyimpanandan pengangkutan.Penandaan produk tepung terigu sebagai bahan makanan harus diberilabel. sekurang-kurangnya harus mencantumkan:•••••Nama produkBerat bersihNama dan alamat produsenDaftar bahan yang digunakanKadaluwarsa.NoNo Peraturan/SuratPembuatTentangKeterangan1. 632/MENKES/SK/VI/1998 MENKES Fortifikasi tepung terigu 2. 153/MPP/Kep/5/2001 MENPERINDAG Pemberlakuan SNI • Didasarkan untuk meningkatkan gizi masyarakat Tepung Terigu Secara • SNI 01-3751-2000/Rev.1995 dan revisinya Wajib • Peraturan berlaku 6 bulan sejak SK terbit3. 323/MPP/Kep/11/2001 MENPERINDAG Perubahan keputusan • Perpanjangan waktu 3 bulan lagi sejak SK Nomor 153/MPP/Kep/5/2001 diterbitkan 153/MPP/Kep/5/2001 4. 59/MPP/Kep/I/2002 MENPERINDAG Penunjukan 5. 962/MENKES/SK/VII/2003 MENKES Fortifikasi tepung terigu • Balai/Lembaga Uji • Sebagai Lab. Tepung • terigu • • • • •6 02/M-IND/PER/1/2008 MENPERIND Pencabutan SK • Untuk menjamin kelangsungan pasokan tepung terigu penerapan wajib SNI Tepung terigu 7 49/M-IND/PER/7/2008 MENPERIND Pemberlakuan SNI • Berlaku untuk tepung terigu dalam kemasan dan atau Tepung Terigu sebagai curah Bahan Makanan Secara • Penerbitan SPPT-SNI dilaksanakan berdasarkan PSN Wajib 302-2006, Sistem 5 atau sistem 1b • SK ini berlaku mulai 14 Agustus 2008BBIHP – BogorBPMBEI – jakartaPusat Penelitian Gizi Depkes – JakartaPT. Sucofindo – BekasiPusat Pengujian Obat dan MakananSetiap tepung terigu yang diedarkan, mengadung:Zat besi• Seng • Asam FolatVit B1• Vit B2SNI• Referensi Pasar• Penilaian KesesuaianRegulasiTeknis• Persyaratan Pasar• Pengawasan Pra-pasar• Pengawasan PasarNo1Peraturan03/DIRJEN -IKAH/SK/II/2002PembuatDirjen IndustriAgro dan Kimia– DEPPERINDTentangPetunjuk Pelaksanaan Penerapan SNI Tepung terigu sebagai bahanmakananDitetapkan oleh Dirjen Industri Kimia, Agro dan Hasil HutanNomor : 03/DIRJEN -IKAH/SK/II/2002, Petunjuk TeknisPenerapan SNI Tepung Terigu Sebagai Bahan Makanan,berisi :› Tepung terigu yang berasal dari dalam negeri› Tepung terigu yang berasal dari impor› Laboratorium penguji› Pengawasan produk